u/Slow-Property5895

« Living the Land » : une terre natale ancienne, pauvre, accablée mais d’une vitalité ininterrompue (une histoire des mœurs, de la société et des transformations historiques du Henan, en Chine)

« Living the Land » : une terre natale ancienne, pauvre, accablée mais d’une vitalité ininterrompue (une histoire des mœurs, de la société et des transformations historiques du Henan, en Chine)

En février 2025, pendant le Festival international du film de Berlin, l’auteur a regardé le film Living the Land (《生息之地》), réalisé par Huo Meng (霍猛) et produit par Yao Chen (姚晨). Ce n’est qu’au moment du visionnage que l’auteur a compris que ce film reflétait précisément les mœurs et la vie locale de sa région natale, le Henan. L’accent familier des personnages, les liens familiaux et les peines, les coutumes et les relations humaines réveillent justement les souvenirs de l’auteur concernant les joies et les tristesses, la naissance, la vieillesse, la maladie et la mort des habitants de sa région natale.

La tonalité du film est sombre, et la vie des habitants du Henan l’est aussi depuis de longues années. L’histoire du film est située en 1991. À cette époque, les habitants du Henan luttaient encore pour leur subsistance. Après la récolte, ils devaient d’abord faire la queue pour remettre au gouvernement le « grain public » (impôt en nature), et ils devaient aussi fournir du bon grain aux écoles pour pouvoir aller à l’école ; ce qui restait constituait des rations limitées et une part librement utilisable. Les gens semaient et récoltaient avec diligence, faisaient sécher le grain avec peine sur les aires de battage, et devaient encore s’inquiéter des tempêtes soudaines qui pouvaient détruire les récoltes. C’est un mode de vie qui existe sur cette terre depuis plus de mille ans, ayant donné naissance à d’innombrables générations d’hommes et de femmes et nourri des centaines de millions de jeunes et de vieux.

Les haut-parleurs du village diffusaient des informations de la Radio centrale, telles que « l’Irak attaque le Koweït » et « l’effondrement du régime de Mengistu en Éthiopie », des événements internationaux survenus à des milliers de kilomètres, tandis que ce dont les gens ici se souciaient, c’était des mariages et des funérailles des proches, de savoir s’il y avait du riz à cuire à la maison, et des frais de scolarité des enfants.

Les « affaires rouges » (mariage, naissance) et les « affaires blanches » (décès d’un proche) sont les affaires auxquelles les gens ici attachent le plus d’importance, dans lesquelles ils investissent le plus d’énergie et dont les rites sont les plus complexes ; ce sont des événements majeurs pour chaque famille dans l’ancien Henan et dans la région des Plaines centrales. Ces affaires rouges et blanches relient la vie et la mort ; elles constituent les processus essentiels par lesquels les êtres humains, sur cette terre comme sur toutes les terres du monde, se reproduisent et vivent, transmettent la vie et la mémoire, maintiennent les familles et les communautés, et perpétuent les nations et les cultures. C’est aussi la raison pour laquelle Living the Land met en scène de manière marquée plusieurs funérailles et célébrations, en commençant par des funérailles et en se terminant également par des funérailles, ce qui correspond exactement à ce titre et à son thème.

Les personnages du film sont vivants, ordinaires mais dotés de personnalité. Le jeune protagoniste « Xu Chuang » (徐闯) n’a pas encore été effacé par le poids de la vie réelle ; il est naïf et plein de vitalité, et le fait qu’il soit chéri par toute sa famille reflète aussi la préférence traditionnelle pour le plus jeune enfant et l’affection sincère et profonde de la culture rurale du Henan ;

La « petite tante » (小姨), en tant que seul personnage principal portant des vêtements aux couleurs vives, porte en elle l’amour d’une jeune fille, mais finit par devoir, comme ses ancêtres et de nombreux proches, « suivre celui qu’elle épouse », se marier avec quelqu’un qu’elle n’aime pas et endurer une vie malheureuse dans sa belle-famille ; elle est un exemple typique de nombreuses personnes de la région natale qui passent des rêves à l’acceptation impuissante de la réalité ;

La « grand-mère » (姥姥), Li Wangshi (李王氏), a traversé des décennies de souffrances, mais continue de vivre avec ténacité et sérénité, ayant élevé toute une grande famille ; bien qu’elle n’ait même pas de nom officiel, sa vertu dépasse celle de nombreux intellectuels érudits, et sa longue vie ressemble à un ruisseau tranquille qui s’écoule, où de nombreuses difficultés sont rendues invisibles par la douceur féminine ;

La « tante par alliance » (舅妈) prend de l’argent de ses revenus modestes pour payer les frais de scolarité des jeunes générations ; cette scène est sans doute familière à de nombreux enfants de la région natale, car ce sont les sacrifices de l’ancienne génération qui soutiennent la croissance de la nouvelle, en écartant les obstacles et en laissant apparaître le beau temps après la pluie ;

« Jihua » (计划) est une personne atteinte de handicap intellectuel que l’on trouve souvent dans chaque village, moquée, intimidée et exploitée, mais fondamentalement bonne, la plus conforme à la nature, sans calcul ni malice…

Ces personnages et ces histoires du film sont précisément le reflet des diverses personnes et des joies et des peines de la vie sur cette terre ancienne du Henan, qui a connu une histoire glorieuse et brillante, a subi plusieurs déclins, et continue pourtant de nourrir sa population et de perpétuer la vie.

Certains critiques disent que Living the Land « montre le côté laid de la Chine pour plaire à l’Occident », ce qui ne correspond pas aux faits. Les personnages et les histoires du film ne présentent pas « seulement un côté sombre », mais sont multiples. Le contenu présenté par le film est aussi une restitution fidèle des faits, montrant de manière vivante la vie et le destin, l’histoire et la réalité des habitants du Henan, exprimant un amour profond pour la région natale, suscitant une forte résonance chez de nombreux spectateurs du Henan, et recevant des éloges largement partagés, des spectateurs ordinaires aux invités de divers pays. Ce n’est évidemment pas « vendre la misère » ni « plaire à l’Occident ». La tonalité globalement sombre et de nombreuses histoires tragiques sont des faits objectifs, qui doivent être présentés tels quels, et non dissimulés ou embellis.

Depuis de nombreuses années, l’histoire du Henan, ainsi que les souvenirs et les émotions des habitants du Henan, ont été réprimés pour diverses raisons, sans expression suffisante ni mise en valeur évidente, et ont été ignorés. Sur le plan international, cette région, berceau de la civilisation chinoise, qui a fourni une main-d’œuvre bon marché pour l’essor économique de la Chine et contribué au monde par des produits de qualité et à bas prix au prix d’efforts incalculables, ainsi que les centaines de millions de personnes qui y vivent, n’ont jamais reçu une attention et une compréhension à la hauteur de sa gloire, de ses contributions et de son ampleur. Les souffrances et l’obscurité d’ici ne sont pas trop exposées, mais trop peu.

Parmi les films célèbres reflétant les sociétés, les cultures et les histoires régionales, le Shandong voisin a Red Sorghum (《红高粱》), le Shaanxi a White Deer Plain (《白鹿原》), et le Shanxi a Mountains May Depart (《山河故人》), mais le Henan n’a longtemps pas eu d’œuvre cinématographique aussi représentative et bouleversante.

La projection de Living the Land et les récompenses obtenues par le réalisateur ont, au moins, permis aux gens du monde entier d’avoir une perception supplémentaire et une certaine mémoire de cette terre qu’est le Henan et de ses habitants, permettant à l’existence de cette région et de ces personnes de se prolonger, laissant des impressions même dans l’esprit de personnes vivant dans des pays lointains.

L’auteur a également eu une brève conversation avec le réalisateur Huo Meng, qui est lui aussi originaire du Henan, avant une rencontre. Il l’a remercié d’avoir réalisé ce film, permettant aux histoires des habitants du Henan d’être connues dans le monde. Lors de la séance de questions suivante, il a également demandé à Yao Chen, en tant que personne originaire du sud de la Chine, ses impressions sur la représentation de la culture du Henan du nord dans le film, ainsi que les différences avec la culture de sa région natale du sud.

Il convient de mentionner que dans ce film, à l’exception de l’actrice Zhang Chuwen (张楚文), qui joue la « petite tante » et est une actrice professionnelle, tous les autres acteurs sont des habitants ordinaires du Henan, des gens du Henan natifs, constituant la grande majorité des scènes du film, interprétant des histoires émouvantes dans les villages de la plaine centrale, et présentant un tableau dynamique semblable à une version rurale de Along the River During the Qingming Festival (《清明上河图》). La longue liste des acteurs à la fin du film rend également hommage à ces habitants du Henan jouant leur propre rôle.

Dans une salle de cinéma à Berlin, l’auteur a discuté avec le père du jeune acteur Wang Shang (汪尚), également sélectionné parmi des enfants ordinaires. Il lui a parlé du lourd fardeau scolaire des élèves du primaire et du secondaire du Henan, ainsi que de la gravité de la « compétition involutive », et le père de Wang partageait profondément ce sentiment. Ils ont également évoqué le fait que de nombreux habitants du Henan choisissent de « partir » (quitter, fuir) pour échapper à cette compétition brutale et au déclin de leur région natale.

Le jeune acteur, choisi comme protagoniste, verra sa vie devenir lumineuse. Mais des millions de ses pairs doivent encore traverser les « quatre-vingt-une épreuves » que connaissent de nombreux habitants du Henan de la naissance à la mort : la pauvreté, la pression scolaire, un travail pénible pour un revenu faible, des mariages malheureux, la charge des anciens et des jeunes, les immeubles inachevés, les crises bancaires, la perte de proches et les souffrances liées à la maladie dans la vieillesse… De nombreuses difficultés entourent toute la vie des générations de cette région natale, transformant des personnes naturellement bienveillantes en individus accablés, faisant passer des jeunes vifs et dynamiques à des adultes d’âge moyen calculateurs et utilitaristes, puis à des personnes âgées au visage ridé et au dos courbé par les soucis, luttant pour survivre, vivant toute leur vie dans l’agitation et l’inquiétude.

Les compatriotes de la région natale dans le film ont connu la cruauté de la guerre de résistance contre le Japon, la famine des périodes de pauvreté, puis les chocs de la modernisation ; de nombreux villageois sont partis travailler ailleurs, et la société clanique traditionnelle ainsi que la culture historique ancienne sont en train de disparaître. Mais quels que soient les changements, cela reste la terre natale des habitants du Henan, la racine de nombreux Chinois et Chinois d’outre-mer, une terre qui, depuis des milliers d’années, transmet la vie, crée la civilisation, porte les souffrances et produit par le travail, ordinaire mais grande, triviale mais solennelle, témoin de la naissance, de l’existence et du repos éternel de vies humaines vivantes les unes après les autres.

(L’auteur de cet article est Wang Qingmin(王庆民), écrivain chinois résidant en Europe, originaire de la province du Henan, en Chine.)

u/Slow-Property5895 — 1 day ago
▲ 41 r/southVietnam+2 crossposts

Việt Nam: chia cắt, tương tàn và nỗi đau thống nhất trong lịch sử hiện đại (phần đầu)

(Bài viết này được trích từ bài bình luận của tôi (Wang Qingmin, nhà văn Trung Quốc) về tiểu thuyết Hàn Quốc và bộ phim cùng tên Dãy núi Taebaek. Bài bình luận bao gồm những nhận xét về lịch sử và chính trị của bán đảo Triều Tiên (Bắc và Nam Triều Tiên) cũng như Trung Quốc.

Trong bài bình luận đó có một chương—chính là nội dung của bài viết này—trình bày và phân tích chi tiết, cảm nhận và đánh giá về lịch sử chia cắt và thống nhất của Việt Nam, với nhiều điểm tương đồng với bán đảo Triều Tiên và Trung Quốc. Trong quá trình bình luận, tôi cũng liên kết và phân tích Việt Nam, Trung Quốc, bán đảo Triều Tiên và toàn thế giới trong một mạch tự sự và nhận định thống nhất.)

(Bi kịch chia cắt và nỗi đau thống nhất của Việt Nam:

Một lịch sử hiện đại đầy tai ương, cảnh huynh đệ tương tàn, sự can thiệp và rút lui từ bên ngoài, những bước ngoặt lịch sử, sự phản tỉnh của tầng lớp tinh hoa và sự tê liệt của quần chúng, cùng sự lạc lối và giằng co tiếp diễn của dân tộc (phần đầu))

Ở phía tây nam của bán đảo Triều Tiên, vượt qua Hoàng Hải, biển Hoa Đông và Biển Đông, hoặc đi qua đại lục Trung Quốc, tồn tại một bán đảo khác có liên hệ địa lý với Trung Quốc và gắn bó chặt chẽ với nền văn minh Trung Hoa—đó là bán đảo Đông Dương. Quốc gia nằm ở cực đông của bán đảo này, Việt Nam, có một lịch sử mang nhiều điểm tương đồng đáng kinh ngạc với bán đảo Triều Tiên. Tuy nhiên, dưới tác động tổng hợp của những yếu tố ngẫu nhiên, nỗ lực chủ quan của con người, cũng như sự can dự và rút lui của các thế lực nước ngoài, Việt Nam đã đi theo một con đường và đạt tới những kết cục mang tính giai đoạn rất khác biệt.

Việt Nam, với lịch sử lâu đời không kém gì Triều Tiên/Cao Ly, trong một thời gian dài từng là chư hầu của các triều đại Trung Nguyên và là một phần mở rộng của nền văn minh Trung Hoa, qua đó hình thành nên một nền văn hóa rực rỡ được gọi là “Tiểu Trung Hoa phương Nam”. Trong thời cận đại và hiện đại, nhiều chí sĩ và nhà yêu nước Việt Nam cũng đã dấn thân vào tiến trình cứu quốc và hiện đại hóa đất nước.

Hồ Chí Minh và Ngô Đình Diệm—những người sau này trở thành đối địch—đã từng là những thanh niên mang khát vọng cứu nước, bôn ba vì sự giải phóng và phục hưng dân tộc. Thực tế, họ chưa bao giờ quên đi lý tưởng ban đầu, mà chỉ lựa chọn những con đường khác nhau, mỗi người đều tin rằng con đường của mình có thể cứu dân tộc Việt Nam.

So với bán đảo Triều Tiên, nơi chịu sự xâm lược và đô hộ lâu dài của Nhật Bản, Việt Nam trong phần lớn thời kỳ cận đại là thuộc địa của Pháp. Cuộc xâm chiếm và cai trị ngắn ngủi của quân đội Nhật đã làm gián đoạn hệ thống thuộc địa của Pháp tại Đông Dương, nhưng sau Chiến tranh Thế giới thứ hai, người Pháp đã quay trở lại.

Trong khi đó, Đảng Cộng sản Trung Quốc, sau khi giành quyền kiểm soát đại lục, đã trở thành chỗ dựa vững chắc cho Việt Minh (Liên minh Độc lập Việt Nam) do Hồ Chí Minh lãnh đạo, cũng như cho Đảng Cộng sản Việt Nam (trước năm 1976 có tên chính thức là Đảng Lao động Việt Nam, nhưng thường được gọi chung là “Việt Cộng”).

Với sự hỗ trợ quân sự từ Đảng Cộng sản Trung Quốc, lực lượng Việt Minh đã đánh bại quân viễn chinh Pháp và kiểm soát phần lãnh thổ phía bắc vĩ tuyến 17. Trong khi đó, miền Nam nằm dưới sự kiểm soát của các lực lượng chống cộng do Ngô Đình Diệm lãnh đạo. Tính chất và sự đối lập giữa hai chính quyền Bắc và Nam Việt Nam có nhiều điểm tương đồng với sự đối lập giữa Đảng Cộng sản và Quốc Dân Đảng tại Trung Quốc, cũng như giữa Bắc Triều Tiên và Hàn Quốc.

Chính quyền Ngô Đình Diệm tại miền Nam từng bị phía Bắc, Trung Quốc và khối xã hội chủ nghĩa mô tả là “tay sai của chủ nghĩa đế quốc Pháp và Mỹ”, nhưng cách nhìn này không hoàn toàn phản ánh thực tế. Trên thực tế, dù nhận được sự hỗ trợ từ Hoa Kỳ và các nước phương Tây, đây vẫn là một chính quyền mang tính dân tộc chủ nghĩa với chủ quyền nhất định. So với miền Bắc, chính quyền này nhấn mạnh hơn đến bản sắc dân tộc và lợi ích quốc gia, đồng thời cũng xảy ra xung đột với các chính quyền cùng phe chống cộng như chính quyền Lon Nol tại Campuchia về vấn đề lãnh thổ, cho thấy sự coi trọng lợi ích quốc gia của mình.

Chính quyền miền Nam dựa vào Pháp và Hoa Kỳ, chủ yếu nhằm đối phó với mối đe dọa từ miền Bắc, vốn nhận được sự hậu thuẫn của Trung Quốc và Liên Xô. Mặc dù tồn tại nhiều tham nhũng và bạo lực, và nền dân chủ mang tính hình thức, xã hội miền Nam vẫn duy trì một mức độ tự do nhất định cho cá nhân. Kinh tế thị trường và tự do ngôn luận, dù chưa hoàn thiện, vẫn tồn tại một cách bền bỉ.

Tuy nhiên, chính quyền Ngô Đình Diệm đã đàn áp nhiều lực lượng khác nhau, bao gồm việc thảm sát Phật tử và giới trí thức cánh tả, để lại những vết nhơ lớn. Hình ảnh Thích Quảng Đức tự thiêu và bức ảnh viên cảnh sát trưởng miền Nam xử bắn tù binh Việt Cộng đã gây chấn động toàn thế giới. Bản thân Ngô Đình Diệm cũng đã chết trong những cuộc đấu tranh chính trị đầy khốc liệt.

Ở miền Bắc, chính quyền Việt Minh do Hồ Chí Minh lãnh đạo, về bản chất gần như tương đồng với các chế độ xã hội chủ nghĩa như Trung Quốc, Liên Xô và Bắc Triều Tiên, nhưng mức độ chuyên chế và tàn bạo thấp hơn đáng kể. Điều này phần lớn xuất phát từ bản thân Hồ Chí Minh—một nhà lãnh đạo tương đối ôn hòa, giản dị và ít tham vọng quyền lực—khác với những nhân vật như Stalin, Mao Trạch Đông hay Kim Nhật Thành.

Điều đó cũng ảnh hưởng đáng kể đến bầu không khí chính trị chung của Việt Minh và sau này là Đảng Cộng sản Việt Nam. Các cuộc thanh trừng nội bộ ít diễn ra hơn, và tồn tại một mức độ nhất định của sinh hoạt dân chủ trong đảng. Dù Hồ Chí Minh có ảnh hưởng vượt trội, ông không cai trị một cách độc đoán tuyệt đối.

Tuy nhiên, sự đối lập mang tính căn bản giữa Bắc và Nam Việt Nam không vì thế mà giảm bớt. Ngược lại, vì nhiều nguyên nhân khác nhau, mối quan hệ giữa hai bên còn trở nên gay gắt và không thể dung hòa hơn cả giữa hai miền Triều Tiên. Trên danh nghĩa, cả hai đều nhấn mạnh việc thống nhất đất nước dựa trên ý chí nhân dân và hòa bình, nhưng trên thực tế, cả hai thường xuyên sử dụng bạo lực và mưu lược—vừa thanh trừng đối lập trong nội bộ để củng cố quyền lực, vừa tìm cách thôn tính phần lãnh thổ còn lại do đối phương kiểm soát.

Trong khi đó, Hoa Kỳ dần thay thế Pháp trở thành người bảo trợ cho chính quyền miền Nam, và cuối cùng trực tiếp can thiệp, khiến mâu thuẫn giữa các bên tại Việt Nam leo thang và đẩy đất nước vào hơn một thập kỷ chiến tranh. Khác với Chiến tranh Triều Tiên—thường được gọi tại Hoa Kỳ là “cuộc chiến bị lãng quên”—Chiến tranh Việt Nam trở thành ký ức lịch sử sâu sắc của nhiều thế hệ người Mỹ, từ thanh niên đến người cao tuổi, kéo theo vô số báo chí, phim ảnh và phong trào xã hội.

Dưới áp lực của những suy tư và phản tỉnh đó, sau khi chịu tổn thất hơn 50.000 binh sĩ tử trận và hàng trăm nghìn người bị thương, chính phủ Hoa Kỳ đã rút quân hoàn toàn khỏi Việt Nam vào năm 1973. Hai năm sau, Hoa Kỳ tiếp tục từ bỏ việc bảo vệ chính quyền miền Nam.

Năm 1975, chính quyền miền Bắc do Lê Duẩn lãnh đạo phát động chiến dịch thống nhất. Dù mất sự hỗ trợ của Hoa Kỳ, quân đội miền Nam, dựa vào vũ khí và nguồn lực còn lại, vẫn tiến hành nhiều tháng kháng cự quyết liệt. Tuy nhiên, đến ngày 30 tháng 4 năm 1975, Sài Gòn thất thủ, và Việt Nam được thống nhất dưới sự lãnh đạo của Đảng Cộng sản Việt Nam.

Việc chiếm được Sài Gòn không chỉ đánh dấu sự thống nhất đất nước, mà vào thời điểm đó còn được xem như biểu tượng cho đỉnh cao mới của phong trào cộng sản và viễn cảnh thắng lợi toàn cầu của cách mạng cộng sản. Những hình ảnh người Mỹ và một bộ phận quan chức, dân thường Việt Nam vội vã tháo chạy vào giờ phút cuối cùng dường như tượng trưng cho sự suy tàn của Hoa Kỳ, và rộng hơn là của thế giới tư bản.

Hai tuần trước khi Sài Gòn thất thủ, Khmer Đỏ tại Campuchia cũng đã chiếm Phnom Penh, khiến chính quyền Lon Nol sụp đổ. Tháng 12 năm 1975, lực lượng cánh tả tại Lào kiểm soát Viêng Chăn, đánh dấu thắng lợi của cách mạng Lào. Như vậy, toàn bộ ba nước Đông Dương đều rơi vào tay các lực lượng cánh tả.

Trong khi đó, vào giữa thập niên 1970, Liên Xô đạt đến đỉnh cao ảnh hưởng, mở rộng phạm vi quyền lực tại Trung Đông, Mỹ Latinh, châu Phi và Nam Á. Các phong trào cánh tả tại phương Tây cũng tích tụ trong nhiều năm và đạt tới cao trào. Vào thời điểm đó, thế giới dường như thực sự tiến gần tới hình ảnh “cờ đỏ phủ khắp toàn cầu”.

Tuy nhiên, không chỉ riêng Việt Nam mà cả phong trào cộng sản toàn cầu đều nhanh chóng suy thoái sau đỉnh cao “chiếm/ thất thủ Sài Gòn”. Thực tế, ngay từ khi chính quyền Bắc Việt được thiết lập năm 1945, các vùng lãnh thổ do họ kiểm soát đã trong tình trạng bị chiến tranh tàn phá và tổn hại về chính trị trong thời gian dài.

Dù là sự ném bom tàn phá của quân đội Pháp và Hoa Kỳ, hay các chính sách kinh tế cực tả do chính quyền cộng sản thực thi, tất cả đều khiến nền kinh tế Việt Nam trì trệ. Việc không xảy ra nạn đói quy mô lớn chủ yếu là nhờ điều kiện tự nhiên thuận lợi của đồng bằng sông Hồng. Trong khi đó, miền Nam Việt Nam cũng phải chịu đựng những xung đột bạo lực khốc liệt và bất ổn chính trị kéo dài; tuy kinh tế tốt hơn miền Bắc, nhưng vẫn tương đối nghèo so với các nước Đông Nam Á khác như Thái Lan hay Malaysia.

Sau khi kiểm soát miền Nam và thống nhất đất nước, chính quyền do Đảng Cộng sản Việt Nam lãnh đạo đã tiến hành cải cách ruộng đất và cải cách sở hữu một cách cưỡng bức tại miền Nam, thực hiện quốc hữu hóa và tập thể hóa toàn diện, xóa bỏ các doanh nghiệp tư nhân, tịch thu tài sản của giới tư sản và đất đai của địa chủ, phú nông. Đồng thời, hàng trăm nghìn quân nhân, cảnh sát, công chức của chính quyền Việt Nam Cộng hòa trước đây, cùng với địa chủ và tư sản, đã bị đưa vào các trại cải tạo.

Những chính sách này đã giáng đòn nặng nề vào kinh tế và đời sống dân sinh của Việt Nam: sản xuất công nghiệp và nông nghiệp gần như sụp đổ, tình trạng nghèo đói lan rộng nhanh chóng, xã hội rơi vào bất ổn. Hàng triệu người Việt đã tìm cách vượt biển ra đi, hướng tới Hồng Kông, Đông Nam Á, châu Âu và châu Mỹ, trong quá trình đó xảy ra vô số bi kịch khốc liệt.

Sau đó, chính quyền Việt Nam quyết định triển khai chính sách “Đổi Mới”, tương tự như “cải cách và mở cửa” của Trung Quốc, từ bỏ mô hình công hữu tuyệt đối và nền kinh tế kế hoạch hóa hoàn toàn, cho phép tồn tại kinh tế tư nhân và kinh doanh cá thể, khuyến khích sản xuất hộ gia đình ở nông thôn, đồng thời mở cửa với đầu tư và thương mại quốc tế. Tuy nhiên, chính sách này chỉ được khởi xướng vào năm 1986, và phải đến thập niên 1990 trở đi mới đạt được những kết quả rõ rệt. Trong khoảng hơn mười năm từ 1975 đến giữa thập niên 1980, nền kinh tế Việt Nam gần như rơi vào trạng thái sụp đổ.

Mặc dù đã thống nhất toàn bộ lãnh thổ và giành thắng lợi cuối cùng trong cuộc đối đầu với chính quyền dân tộc chủ nghĩa miền Nam (cùng các lực lượng hậu thuẫn như Hoa Kỳ), nhưng xét về phát triển quốc gia và cải thiện đời sống dân sinh, chính quyền này thực chất đã thất bại. Chính sách Đổi Mới tuy giúp cứu vãn xu thế suy sụp hoàn toàn, nhưng cho đến nay thành tựu vẫn còn hạn chế.

Hơn nữa, Đổi Mới trên thực tế đồng nghĩa với việc từ bỏ lý tưởng cộng sản mang tính nguyên giáo, khi dưới chế độ một đảng vẫn duy trì, Việt Nam lại vận hành nền kinh tế theo hướng thực tế mang tính tư bản. Chủ nghĩa cộng sản từ đó phần lớn chỉ còn là một lời hứa treo lơ lửng.

Phong trào cộng sản quốc tế cũng trải qua quá trình suy thoái nhanh chóng từ nửa sau thập niên 1970 kéo dài hơn một thập kỷ sau đó. Sự hùng mạnh của Liên Xô trong những năm 1970 phần lớn dựa vào lợi ích từ kinh tế dầu mỏ và sự phục hồi nhất thời của nền tảng cũ. Bước sang thập niên 1980, kinh tế Liên Xô suy thoái, đời sống nhân dân khó khăn, chính trị trì trệ, tầng lớp lãnh đạo già hóa, xã hội mất đi sức sống. Tình trạng này cũng phổ biến trong toàn bộ khối Xô-Đông Âu.

Mikhail Gorbachev từng cố gắng xoay chuyển tình thế, nhưng lại vô tình làm trầm trọng thêm các mâu thuẫn nội tại, dẫn đến biến động ở Đông Âu và sự tan rã của Liên Xô. Cường quốc từng đứng vững trong nhiều thập kỷ sụp đổ trong chốc lát, và toàn bộ tiến trình “tìm kiếm gian nan” nhằm xây dựng “thiên đường cộng sản” bằng cách mạng bạo lực và chuyên chính vô sản cũng hoàn toàn phá sản.

Tại phương Tây, các phong trào cánh tả sôi động trong thập niên 1960–1970 cũng dần suy giảm. Về văn hóa, chủ nghĩa bảo thủ Kitô giáo phục hưng, con người quay trở lại với truyền thống thay vì tìm cách phá bỏ tất cả; về chính trị và kinh tế, với sự lên nắm quyền của Thatcher và Reagan, “chủ nghĩa tân tự do” trở thành xu thế chủ đạo, chính trị thực dụng vượt lên trên ngoại giao lý tưởng; trong giới tư tưởng phương Tây cũng diễn ra sự phản tỉnh về việc từng sùng bái Liên Xô một cách mù quáng và xem nhẹ các giá trị nhân đạo và dân chủ. Francis Fukuyama thậm chí đã đưa ra luận điểm “kết thúc của lịch sử”, cho rằng mô hình dân chủ tự do phương Tây sẽ trở thành hình thái phổ biến toàn cầu.

Tại các khu vực châu Á, châu Phi và Mỹ Latinh, phong trào cộng sản cũng dần suy yếu. Ở Trung Quốc, chính sách “cải cách và mở cửa” của Đặng Tiểu Bình cùng khái niệm “chủ nghĩa xã hội đặc sắc Trung Quốc” rõ ràng đã từ bỏ chủ nghĩa cộng sản theo nghĩa cổ điển để chuyển sang chủ nghĩa thực dụng. Tại Mỹ Latinh, con đường cách mạng cộng sản bạo lực bị thay thế bởi đấu tranh hòa bình theo hướng dân chủ xã hội; các tổ chức như “Con Đường Sáng” hay “Lực lượng Vũ trang Cách mạng Colombia” dần suy yếu và đi vào thoái trào. Ở châu Phi, nhiều chính quyền cánh tả do Liên Xô hậu thuẫn cũng chuyển hướng về lý thuyết theo dân chủ xã hội, nhưng trên thực tế lại trở thành các chế độ độc tài dưới sự chi phối của tầng lớp tinh hoa hoặc chỉ tồn tại dân chủ ở mức rất thấp, xa rời lý tưởng cộng sản ban đầu. Tại Đông Nam Á, các phong trào cộng sản từng mạnh mẽ ở Thái Lan, Malaysia, Indonesia… cũng bị các lực lượng dân tộc chủ nghĩa và phương Tây phối hợp đàn áp.

Điều đáng cảm khái nhất là Campuchia, quốc gia láng giềng của Việt Nam. Khmer Đỏ do Pol Pot lãnh đạo đã chiếm Phnom Penh ngay trước khi Sài Gòn thất thủ. Nhưng khác với việc chính quyền Việt Nam phần nào khoan dung với nhân sự của chính quyền miền Nam (phần lớn chỉ đưa vào trại cải tạo), Khmer Đỏ đã tiến hành tàn sát quy mô lớn đối với những người thuộc chính quyền Lon Nol, rồi mở rộng ra gần như toàn bộ trí thức, tầng lớp tinh hoa xã hội, cư dân đô thị và cả những người nông dân khá giả. Trong hơn ba năm cầm quyền, khoảng 1,5 triệu người Campuchia đã bị giết hại, chiếm khoảng một phần tư dân số cả nước.

Việc chấm dứt các cuộc thảm sát này lại đến từ chính quyền Việt Nam—lực lượng từng là đồng minh cách mạng với Khmer Đỏ nhưng đồng thời có xung đột lợi ích quốc gia và tham vọng khu vực. Cả việc Việt Nam chiếm đóng Campuchia lẫn việc cộng đồng quốc tế dần nhận ra sự thật đều gây chấn động sâu sắc trước mức độ tàn sát mang tính phổ biến tại Campuchia, cũng như trước thực tế rằng ở một số nơi, các lực lượng cộng sản đã đạt tới mức độ phi nhân tính đáng kinh ngạc, biến dạng lý tưởng cộng sản và tạo ra những hậu quả cực kỳ nghiêm trọng.

So với thảm kịch gần như hủy diệt tại Campuchia dưới thời Khmer Đỏ, Việt Nam dưới sự lãnh đạo của Đảng Cộng sản có vẻ “chấp nhận được hơn”: không xảy ra các cuộc thảm sát quy mô lớn, các cuộc thanh trừng chính trị có quy mô nhỏ hơn và phương thức tương đối “ôn hòa” hơn (đa số chỉ bị đưa đi lao động sản xuất và cải tạo tư tưởng; dù vẫn có người bị xử tử, nhiều người chết vì bệnh tật, đói khát, hoặc thiệt mạng khi tìm cách vượt biên, như được phản ánh trong bộ phim Boat People). Việt Nam cũng không trải qua những chiến dịch chính trị quy mô lớn như Trung Quốc, và so với Bắc Triều Tiên, môi trường chính trị – xã hội có thể coi là “dễ thở” hơn. Sau khi tiến hành Đổi Mới từ giữa thập niên 1980, kinh tế – xã hội Việt Nam cũng đạt được sự phát triển đáng kể, trở thành một trong những quốc gia đang lên tại Đông Nam Á.

Tuy nhiên, về bản chất, tình hình Việt Nam vẫn tương tự Trung Quốc: đây là một quốc gia mang tính chuyên chế, nơi người dân phổ biến thiếu quyền chính trị và tự do; Đảng Cộng sản Việt Nam độc quyền quyền lực, tự do báo chí và ngôn luận bị hạn chế, và những người bất đồng chính kiến hiếm hoi thường bị đàn áp. Về kinh tế, dù Việt Nam đã đạt được những tiến bộ đáng kể trong những năm gần đây và đời sống người dân được cải thiện, quốc gia này vẫn thuộc nhóm tương đối nghèo trên thế giới; GDP bình quân đầu người thấp hơn phần lớn các nước Đông Nam Á và cũng thấp hơn Trung Quốc. Sự tăng trưởng trong những năm gần đây phần nào mang tính bù đắp cho những tổn thất nghiêm trọng trước đó, và không nên được cường điệu hóa. Hệ thống phúc lợi xã hội còn yếu, tình trạng nghèo đói vẫn tồn tại rộng rãi ở cả thành thị lẫn nông thôn, khiến nhiều người phải di cư hoặc vượt biên sang châu Âu, Mỹ, Nhật Bản, Đài Loan và Hồng Kông để mưu sinh.

Hơn nữa, những thành tựu kinh tế hạn chế của Việt Nam phần lớn lại dựa trên mô hình kinh tế mang tính tư bản, chứ không phải là kết quả trực tiếp từ các lý tưởng và chính sách cộng sản mà chính quyền đã theo đuổi từ khi thành lập. Đồng thời, các vấn đề như phân hóa giàu nghèo, tham nhũng của giới quyền lực, quan hệ thân hữu… cũng cho thấy chính quyền này không thể ngăn chặn những hiện tượng tiêu cực vốn thường được gắn với xã hội tư bản hoặc các chế độ chuyên chế truyền thống.

Vậy thì, một cuộc cách mạng cộng sản, với hàng triệu người đổ máu và hy sinh, rốt cuộc lại dẫn đến thực tại như vậy—rốt cuộc là vì điều gì? Trước câu hỏi này, một số người Việt Nam đã bắt đầu suy ngẫm. Trong cuốn Việt Nam: Kẻ câm lặng của lịch sử thế giới, nhiều ví dụ đã được nêu ra. Chẳng hạn, nhạc sĩ Phạm Duy, trong ca khúc Câu chuyện của hai người lính, đã nghẹn ngào cất lên: “Trong buổi bình minh ửng đỏ, hai người lính giết nhau vì Việt Nam! Giết nhau vì Việt Nam!” Một nhạc sĩ khác nổi tiếng hơn nữa, gần như ai cũng biết—Trịnh Công Sơn—cũng đã thể hiện trong các tác phẩm của mình sự suy tư về sự tàn khốc của chiến tranh và những tổn hại mà nó gây ra cho quân và dân Việt Nam.

Nhà văn Bảo Ninh, xuất thân từ quân đội, càng đi xa hơn khi dựa trên trải nghiệm cá nhân để viết nên lời cáo buộc đầy bi phẫn về hàng chục năm chiến tranh, về những cái chết chất chồng, về một đất nước bị biến thành tro tàn mà rốt cuộc lại không thu được gì. Trong tác phẩm tiêu biểu Nỗi buồn chiến tranh, ông để cho nhân vật người lính cất tiếng: “Đổ bao nhiêu máu, hy sinh bao nhiêu người, rốt cuộc là vì cái gì?”

Một nữ nhà văn khác, Dương Thu Hương, từ góc nhìn của phụ nữ đã lên án tội ác của chiến tranh và sự tàn bạo trong nhiều hành vi của chính quyền do Đảng Cộng sản lãnh đạo. Những lời tố cáo mạnh mẽ của bà đến mức ngay cả Tổng Bí thư tương đối cởi mở là Nguyễn Văn Linh cũng không thể chấp nhận, đã nổi giận và khai trừ bà khỏi đảng, đồng thời đẩy bà vào cảnh lưu đày.

Những suy tư, nghi vấn và nỗi đau ấy không chỉ thuộc về họ, mà còn phản ánh tâm trạng của những cán bộ, trí thức, công nhân và nông dân có lương tri và tinh thần phản tỉnh trong các chế độ như Liên Xô, Trung Quốc hay Triều Tiên. Nội chiến Nga, nội chiến Quốc–Cộng tại Trung Quốc, Chiến tranh Triều Tiên—biết bao nhiêu cái chết và tàn phá, biết bao bi kịch được gọi là “sai lầm” hay “đi đường vòng”—rốt cuộc là vì điều gì?

Những phản tỉnh của trí thức Việt Nam là đáng quý. Nhưng đối với cả quốc gia và dân tộc, chừng đó là hoàn toàn chưa đủ. Giới trí thức Việt Nam giống như những chiếc lá sen nổi trên mặt nước—quả thực tràn đầy sức sống. Nhưng phần lớn người dân lại bị che phủ dưới làn nước đục, sống và chết trong trạng thái mơ hồ, u tối. Nỗi khổ của những tầng lớp yếu thế dưới đáy xã hội thì như lớp bùn dưới lòng sông, không bao giờ được ánh sáng chiếu tới.

Chiến tranh đẫm máu, môi trường sinh tồn khắc nghiệt, sự nghèo đói phổ biến và thiếu thốn tri thức đã khiến người Việt Nam phần lớn lựa chọn chịu đựng, im lặng và sống qua ngày. Điều này hoàn toàn khác với người dân Hàn Quốc—những người được hưởng tự do dân chủ, sống trong ổn định và thịnh vượng, có ý thức công dân mạnh mẽ và thường xuyên tham gia các phong trào xã hội.

Trong bộ phim Mỹ về chiến tranh Việt Nam Apocalypse Now, qua lời của đại tá Kurtz—một nhân vật được xem như mang tính “ác quỷ”—đã nêu ra rằng: binh lính Mỹ khó có thể chịu đựng được sự tàn khốc của chiến tranh; một mặt họ bị yêu cầu phải có đạo đức và trách nhiệm, mặt khác lại phải giết người không chớp mắt. Nhiều người không thể làm được điều đó và đã phát điên. Trong khi đó, người Việt Nam có thể vừa sống như những thường dân bình thường bên gia đình, vừa có thể giết người mà không mang gánh nặng tâm lý, thậm chí chặt tay của những đứa trẻ đã được tiêm vắc-xin của Mỹ và chất thành đống.

Trong bộ phim khác The Deer Hunter, người lính Mỹ Nick, khi bị bắt, đã bị buộc phải chơi trò “cò quay Nga” bằng súng lục. Dù cuối cùng anh và đồng đội giết được lính Việt và trốn thoát, Nick lại không thể thoát khỏi ám ảnh của trò chơi đó, chìm đắm trong nó và cuối cùng chết trong một lần “cò quay Nga”. Trong khi đó, những người lính Việt thường xuyên dùng trò này để hành hạ tù binh lại không hề bị ám ảnh bởi nó. Dù là cái chết của lính Mỹ hay của chính đồng đội mình, họ dường như đã trở nên quen thuộc.

Võ Nguyên Giáp, lãnh đạo Quân đội Nhân dân Việt Nam, sau khi kết thúc chiến tranh chống Pháp từng nói: “Mỗi phút trên thế giới có hàng nghìn, hàng vạn người chết. Một trăm, một nghìn, một vạn, hàng vạn người chết—vì cách mạng và sự thống nhất đất nước—kể cả nếu đó là đồng bào của chúng ta, cũng không đáng kể.” Trong cuộc chiến sau đó với Hoa Kỳ, từ trên xuống dưới, miền Bắc Việt Nam cũng hành xử theo một logic tương tự.

Chính nhờ sự kiên cường đến mức khắc nghiệt, sự lạnh lùng, việc gạt bỏ đồng cảm, không ngại hy sinh sinh mạng con người, không sợ sự tan vỡ của những giá trị tốt đẹp, và bất chấp mọi tổn thất vật chất lẫn tinh thần, mà lực lượng cộng sản Việt Nam đã kéo dài cuộc chiến cho đến khi buộc quân đội Hoa Kỳ phải rút lui.

Sự “cứng như thép” và dường như thiếu cảm xúc ấy thực chất là biểu hiện của sự tê liệt tinh thần và suy thoái đạo đức. Dĩ nhiên, trong hoàn cảnh chiến tranh, họ gần như không có điều kiện để nghiền ngẫm nỗi đau hay tiến hành phản tỉnh sâu sắc. Hoa Kỳ mất khoảng 46.000 binh sĩ và hơn 150.000 người bị thương tại Việt Nam, và cả nước Mỹ đã tiến hành vô số hoạt động tưởng niệm và phản tư; hàng trăm, hàng nghìn bộ phim kinh điển lấy đề tài từ chiến tranh Việt Nam đã ra đời, làm thay đổi sâu sắc tư duy và số phận của cả một thế hệ người Mỹ, và ảnh hưởng kéo dài đến tận ngày nay.

Trong khi đó, phía Việt Nam có hơn một triệu người chết trong chiến tranh, hàng triệu người bị thương hoặc tàn tật, đất nước bị tàn phá thành hoang tàn. Thế nhưng, ở cấp độ toàn xã hội, lại không diễn ra một quá trình phản tỉnh sâu rộng và toàn diện. Chính vì chiến tranh đối với người Việt Nam quá khốc liệt, những tổn thất về vật chất và tinh thần quá nặng nề, nên cho đến nay đất nước vẫn chưa thực sự thoát khỏi những di chứng của chiến tranh cũng như tình trạng quốc gia yếu kém và dân chúng nghèo khó.

Dẫu vậy, cái giá khổng lồ mà quân đội và nhân dân Việt Nam phải trả đã đổi lấy sự thống nhất đất nước. So với Trung Quốc hay bán đảo Triều Tiên vẫn còn bị chia cắt, Việt Nam đã thực hiện được giấc mơ thống nhất từ năm 1975. Nhưng trên toàn bộ lãnh thổ Việt Nam dưới sự lãnh đạo của Đảng Cộng sản, những bi kịch nói trên vẫn tiếp diễn.

(Còn tiếp. Do bài viết khá dài và bài đăng trên Reddit bị giới hạn 40.000 ký tự, nên chỉ có thể chia thành hai phần (trên và dưới) để đăng.)

(Tác giả của bài viết này là Wang Qingmin, một nhà văn Trung Quốc sống tại châu Âu và là nhà nghiên cứu chính trị quốc tế. Tác giả cũng đã viết nhiều bài bình luận về Việt Nam. Bản gốc được viết bằng tiếng Trung.)

u/Slow-Property5895 — 3 days ago
▲ 5 r/China

France’s Return of Chinese Cultural Relics Sparks Controversy Among the Chinese Public: A China Plagued by Systemic Ills and Intensifying Internal Contradictions, the Erosion of Patriotic Sentiment and the Spread of Anti-Patriotic Sentiment

On April 13, the French Parliament passed a resolution to simplify the procedures for returning cultural relics acquired during France’s 19th–20th century colonial expansion across the world. Although the resolution mainly targets artifacts looted from Africa, France also seized numerous Chinese cultural relics from places such as the Old Summer Palace during the Second Opium War and the 1900 Eight-Nation Alliance invasion. In principle, these should also fall under the resolution, facilitating their return to China at an earlier date. During the passage of the resolution, some legislators invoked Victor Hugo’s view that France should renew itself and return its ill-gotten wealth to China.

The return by France of looted cultural relics constitutes a justified act of historical reflection, compensation for victims, and decolonial transitional justice. The return of Chinese relics should, in principle, be welcome and worthy of celebration for both the Chinese state and its people.

However, a number of discordant voices have emerged on the Chinese-language internet, with some even opposing France’s return of cultural relics to China. On platforms such as Weibo and Xiaohongshu, comments include: “It’s safer to keep them abroad,” “The Nanjing Museum scandal has yet to be resolved,” “If another Cultural Revolution occurs, they will be destroyed again,” and “France returns authentic artifacts, but they become ‘fake’ ones in Chinese museums.” Of course, many also praise the resolution and support the return, but dissenting views account for at least 40 percent or more.

At first glance, it seems puzzling that some Chinese would oppose France returning looted cultural relics to China, leaving many foreigners, including the French, confused. Yet a closer examination of the reasons behind these objections reveals the complexity of the issue, the underlying rationality of these seemingly paradoxical attitudes, and the internal contradictions within China that they expose.

Based on public opinion across online platforms and related reports, Chinese netizens who hold negative or even opposing attitudes toward the return of cultural relics mainly advance the following arguments:

Since 1949, multiple political campaigns in the People’s Republic of China—especially during the Cultural Revolution—have severely damaged cultural heritage; many rare relics, including ancient books, ceramics, tombs, and architectural structures, were extensively destroyed;

Corruption is widespread in China’s cultural heritage storage and protection institutions, with frequent cases of illicit trading of artifacts for profit, such as the recent revelation that the Nanjing Museum secretly sold donated paintings and calligraphy, along with scandals involving museums across the country suspected of selling or losing artifacts;

The management, preservation, and handling of cultural relics in China lack adequate supervision and transparency, while the public has limited access to information, and those with power can easily appropriate benefits for themselves;

Compared with the destruction and corruption in China, France has, in practice, better preserved these artifacts from damage and ensured that authentic items are not trafficked; it may therefore be safer to let them remain in France. In contrast to distrust toward Chinese authorities, some Chinese place greater trust in the French, as “foreigners,” to safeguard these objects.

These dissenting views are clearly grounded in evidence and possess a certain degree of validity. On the issue of cultural relics, many Chinese do not simply adopt a patriotic stance or unconditionally support repatriation driven by national sentiment. Instead, a significant number conduct a rational and pragmatic assessment of the advantages and disadvantages for preservation should the artifacts be returned to China. There is also a strand of more emotional commentary that does not reflect fervent patriotism, but rather expresses irony and sarcasm toward repatriation, asserting that the artifacts would inevitably be resold by administrators or destroyed again in future political campaigns.

Such public attitudes differ markedly from those of the 1990s through the 2010s. In the past, most Chinese people possessed a relatively strong patriotic sentiment. Despite differing political views, on matters involving national interests and foreign affairs, the majority still stood with China.

Specifically regarding looted cultural relics, the return of the Old Summer Palace zodiac bronzes once became a prominent issue at the turn of the century, receiving enthusiastic support from both the government and the public. During events such as the Wenchuan earthquake and the Beijing Olympics, many people contributed labor, donations, and supplies, reflecting a strong patriotic spirit.

However, over roughly the past five years—since the outbreak of COVID-19 in China, the implementation of the “zero-COVID” policy, and the resulting economic and livelihood challenges—China’s public discourse has undergone a subtle yet profound transformation. “Patriotism” is no longer a spontaneous sentiment or stance shared by the majority.

Aside from those who support the government in the name of patriotism, most citizens no longer enthusiastically support the state and have lost their sense of national pride and honor. For example, public attention to China’s performance in the Olympics has declined; interest in space missions such as the Shenzhou program has waned; and reactions to recent Sino-Japanese tensions have been notably muted. These trends reflect a growing indifference toward major national affairs, as if people were mere bystanders.

Many Chinese also treat “patriotism” with mockery, often through sarcasm or a subtly derisive tone. For instance, those who wave national flags or celebrate National Day are ridiculed as the “loyal base” or as “disposable resources.” Those who commemorate victory in the War of Resistance against Japan in public or on social media are labeled as “brainwashed” or as products of “hate education.” Rejecting what they perceive as coercive patriotic pressure, some even adopt positions directly opposed to the state: supporting what the state opposes and opposing what the state supports is, for some, regarded as a sign of rationality, clarity, and civility.

This comprehensive deconstruction of patriotism—systematically opposing whatever the state supports and ridiculing patriotic expressions—is, in fact, the mirror image of blind patriotism that uncritically aligns with official positions. This phenomenon can be described as anti-patriotic sentiment.

Examining the roots of this anti-patriotic sentiment reveals that it stems from widespread systemic problems across Chinese society, intensifying social contradictions, and a sense of psychological disorientation among the populace. Compared with the broadly upward trajectory from the 1980s to the 2010s, China today faces developmental bottlenecks, the impact of the pandemic, and stalled reforms. People’s living conditions have become more difficult, and expectations have shifted from hope to disappointment and even despair.

Moreover, China has long exhibited a divergence between state interests and the interests of ordinary citizens—characterized by a “rich state, poor people” and a “strong state, weak people.” Since the mid-2010s, even as the state has grown stronger, certain civil rights have in some respects contracted. The governing authorities and the populace, as well as institutional elites and ordinary citizens, are to some extent estranged and even partially opposed, rather than forming a community of mutual trust. Social conflicts outweigh cooperation, and divisions exceed harmony.

At the same time, officially promoted “patriotism” often conflates love for the country with loyalty to the Party and the government, demanding obedience, loyalty, and sacrifice regardless of whether policies are right or wrong. Citizens are required to fulfill various obligations while not being granted sufficient rights and freedoms. This official patriotism often also includes elements of anti-Western sentiment, and opposition to universal values.

Those who criticize official policies, advocate learning from foreign experience, or merely express dissent are often labeled by government supporters as “traitors,” “sellouts,” “colonial lackeys,” or “Taiwanese internet trolls.” This has led many who oppose the ruling authorities or are dissatisfied with the status quo to develop a backlash against “patriotism,” pushing them toward the opposite extreme.

Meanwhile, the lack of political democracy and freedom of expression further constrains public discourse, deepening frustration and disillusionment. Direct criticism of the government and ruling authorities may also entail risks.

It is within this context that many turn toward a relatively low-risk form of anti-patriotic sentiment—one that allows them to oppose official narratives, deconstruct grand narratives, and “push back” against official discourse on certain issues through irony and contrarian positioning, thereby venting dissatisfaction and expressing anti-system attitudes.

While this may undermine official authority and resist certain forms of indoctrination, it also damages legitimate and necessary national sentiment and patriotic spirit, indiscriminately negating, devaluing, and stigmatizing even those policies and actions that are reasonable and beneficial to the country and its people.

As China’s economic downturn persists, with rising unemployment, increasing social stratification, and the continuation of various systemic problems, anti-patriotic sentiment is spreading more widely across the country, with more people joining those who take positions opposed to “patriotism.”

Mockery or indifference toward the return of cultural relics, commemorations of wartime history, and China’s diplomatic activities are precisely manifestations of this anti-patriotic sentiment. Such discourse is, to some extent, tolerated by the authorities, as it does not directly challenge the ruling party or government and therefore does not threaten regime stability.

Anti-patriotic sentiment/anti-nationalism, like extreme patriotism/nationalism, disregards concrete facts, is driven by emotion, avoids case-by-case analysis, and adopts polarized positions. Ultimately, all are detrimental to China’s national interests. Their intense confrontation in public discourse exacerbates social fragmentation and polarization, undermines rational judgment, blurs distinctions between right and wrong, degrades the public discourse environment, and produces significant negative real-world consequences. The rise of a wave of anti-patriotic sentiment is the result of economic hardship and intensifying social contradictions. Confusion over values and a crisis of identity among Chinese people further amplify this phenomenon.

The controversy triggered by this restitution is yet another manifestation of anti-patriotic sentiment in China. Under normal circumstances, the return of looted cultural relics to their country of origin should be an unquestionably positive development. Yet in China, it has provoked strong opposition. This calls for vigilance and reflection, prompting analysis of what exactly has gone wrong within the country.

As Mencius said, “When the ruler treats his subjects like dirt, the subjects regard him as an enemy.” Sun Yat-sen criticized the late Qing by stating that “the state does not know the people, and the people do not know the state.” In modern society, the principle of unity between rights and obligations suggests that when rulers fail to treat the people well and do not adequately guarantee civil rights and livelihoods—when people bear many obligations but possess few rights, and contribute much to the state while benefiting little from the system—they will develop resentment toward the state and government, making patriotism difficult.

There is also the saying that “when those at the top are not upright, those below will follow suit.” When high-ranking officials are corrupt and their families emigrate abroad, while they themselves fail to act with integrity yet still exhort the public to be “patriotic” and “not to admire foreign things,” such calls naturally fail to resonate. The erosion of patriotic sentiment among Chinese people is precisely the result of these realities: a state that neglects its citizens, the distortion and instrumentalization of patriotism, and the coexistence of national strength with popular hardship.

In summary, China’s internal social problems, insufficient protection of civil rights and livelihoods, and the divide between officials and the public, as well as between rulers and the masses, have severely undermined national unity and cohesion, which is detrimental to the country’s development and its external competitiveness.

To reverse this situation, those in power must first improve civil rights and livelihoods, granting people more genuine democratic rights and ensuring a decent standard of living. Only then will citizens develop a strong sense of identity and belonging to the nation. Greater freedom of expression and normal channels for public discourse are also necessary, allowing people to express their emotions and demands openly rather than accumulating resentment under suppression, which leads to conflict and internal fragmentation.

The general public must also recognize that while it is appropriate to criticize the ruling party and government, this should not lead to abandoning patriotism altogether. The nation remains an indispensable community in the functioning of the modern world. Dissatisfaction with those in power should not extend to deconstructing and undermining national interests and dignity, as this ultimately harms oneself. Patriotism and the pursuit of legitimate individual rights and protections should be aligned rather than opposed.

However, in present-day China, there are no clear signs of reform among those in power, and the public lacks hope. With economic decline and increasing social stratification, social contradictions continue to intensify, and interpersonal tensions are becoming more severe. Under such conditions, both the distorted patriotism that supports everything endorsed by the authorities and the anti-patriotic (or “anti-country”) tendency that opposes everything endorsed by the authorities will continue to spread in China, persistently shaping and disturbing both public discourse and social reality.

(The author of this article, Wang Qingmin(王庆民), is a Chinese writer residing in Europe and a researcher in international politics. The original version of this article was written in Chinese.)

reddit.com
u/Slow-Property5895 — 3 days ago
▲ 7 r/socialscience+1 crossposts

La restitution par la France de biens culturels chinois suscite une controverse parmi la population chinoise : une Chine minée par de multiples dysfonctionnements et des contradictions internes exacerbées, l’érosion du sentiment patriotique et la diffusion d’un sentiment anti-patriotique

Le 13 avril, le Parlement français a adopté une résolution visant à simplifier les procédures de restitution des biens culturels acquis lors de l’expansion coloniale française aux XIXe et XXe siècles à travers le monde. Bien que la résolution vise principalement les objets pillés en Afrique, la France a également saisi de nombreux biens culturels chinois, notamment au Palais d’Été (Yuanmingyuan), lors de la Seconde guerre de l’Opium et de l’expédition des Huit Nations en 1900. En principe, ces objets relèvent également de cette résolution, ce qui favorise leur restitution à la Chine dans les meilleurs délais. Lors de l’adoption de la résolution, certains députés ont évoqué la vision de Victor Hugo selon laquelle la France devrait se transformer et restituer à la Chine les richesses acquises injustement.

La restitution par la France des biens culturels pillés constitue un acte juste de réflexion historique, de réparation envers les victimes et de justice transitionnelle dans une perspective de décolonisation. Le retour des biens culturels chinois devrait, en principe, être une bonne nouvelle digne d’être saluée et célébrée par l’État et le peuple chinois.

Cependant, de nombreuses voix discordantes sont apparues sur l’internet chinois, certaines allant même jusqu’à s’opposer à la restitution des biens culturels par la France. Sur des plateformes telles que Weibo et Xiaohongshu, on peut lire des commentaires comme : « Il vaut mieux les laisser à l’étranger, c’est plus sûr », « L’affaire du musée de Nanjing n’est pas encore résolue », « S’il y a une nouvelle Révolution culturelle, ils seront à nouveau détruits », ou encore « La France restitue des objets authentiques, mais en Chine ils deviennent des “faux” dans les musées ». Bien sûr, de nombreuses voix saluent également la résolution et soutiennent la restitution, mais les avis opposés représentent au moins 40 % ou plus.

Que des Chinois s’opposent à la restitution de biens culturels pillés peut sembler étrange à première vue, et beaucoup d’étrangers, y compris des Français, en sont perplexes. Mais un examen approfondi des raisons de ces objections révèle la complexité du problème, la rationalité sous-jacente à ces positions apparemment paradoxales, ainsi que les contradictions internes qu’elles mettent en lumière.

D’après l’opinion publique sur les plateformes en ligne et les reportages associés, les internautes chinois qui adoptent une attitude négative, voire opposée, à la restitution des biens culturels avancent principalement les arguments suivants :

Depuis 1949, les nombreuses campagnes politiques en République populaire de Chine, en particulier durant la Révolution culturelle, ont gravement endommagé le patrimoine culturel ; de nombreux objets précieux, y compris des livres anciens, des céramiques, des tombes et des bâtiments, ont été détruits ;

Les institutions de conservation du patrimoine en Chine sont entachées de corruption, avec des cas fréquents de revente illégale d’objets à des fins lucratives, comme le scandale révélé l’an dernier concernant la vente clandestine de peintures et calligraphies données au musée de Nanjing, ainsi que d’autres affaires impliquant des musées à travers le pays accusés de trafic ou de perte de biens culturels ;

La protection, la conservation et la gestion des biens culturels en Chine manquent de supervision et de transparence, tandis que le public dispose de peu de droit à l’information, et que ceux qui détiennent du pouvoir peuvent facilement en tirer des bénéfices personnels ;

Comparée aux destructions et à la corruption en Chine, la France a, de facto, mieux protégé ces objets, en empêchant leur détérioration et leur trafic ; il serait donc plus sûr de les laisser en France. Face à une administration chinoise perçue comme corrompue, certains Chinois accordent davantage de confiance aux Français, en tant qu’« étrangers », pour préserver ces biens.

Ces voix critiques reposent manifestement sur des faits et présentent une certaine rationalité. Sur la question des biens culturels, de nombreux Chinois n’adoptent pas simplement une position patriotique ou un soutien inconditionnel dicté par l’émotion nationale ; au contraire, beaucoup procèdent à une analyse rationnelle et pragmatique des avantages et des inconvénients pour la conservation des objets en cas de retour en Chine. Une partie des commentaires, plus émotionnels, ne relève pas d’un patriotisme fervent, mais exprime au contraire ironie et sarcasme à l’égard de la restitution, estimant que les objets seraient inévitablement revendus par les gestionnaires ou détruits à nouveau lors de futures campagnes politiques.

Cette attitude de l’opinion publique diffère sensiblement de celle des années 1990 aux années 2010. Par le passé, la majorité des Chinois nourrissait un fort sentiment patriotique. Malgré des divergences politiques, sur les questions d’intérêt national et de relations extérieures, la plupart se rangeaient du côté de la Chine.

Concernant plus précisément les biens culturels pillés par des puissances étrangères, le retour des têtes en bronze du zodiaque du Palais d’Été avait suscité un vif engouement au tournant du siècle, soutenu tant par les autorités que par la population. Lors du séisme de Wenchuan et des Jeux olympiques de Pékin, de nombreuses personnes ont contribué par leur travail, leurs dons et leurs efforts, reflétant un fort élan patriotique.

Cependant, au cours des cinq dernières années environ — depuis l’apparition de la pandémie de COVID-19 en Chine, la mise en œuvre de la politique de « zéro COVID » et les difficultés économiques et sociales qui en ont découlé — le paysage de l’opinion publique chinoise a connu une transformation profonde mais discrète. Le « patriotisme » n’est plus un sentiment spontané partagé par la majorité.

En dehors de ceux qui soutiennent le gouvernement au nom du patriotisme, la plupart des citoyens ne soutiennent plus activement l’État et ont perdu leur sentiment de fierté nationale. Par exemple, l’attention portée aux performances de la Chine aux Jeux olympiques a diminué ; l’intérêt pour les missions spatiales Shenzhou s’est affaibli ; et les réactions aux récentes tensions sino-japonaises ont été relativement indifférentes. Tout cela reflète une indifférence croissante à l’égard des affaires nationales, comme si les individus se comportaient en simples spectateurs.

Beaucoup de Chinois tournent également le « patriotisme » en dérision, avec ironie ou un ton insinuant. Par exemple, ceux qui brandissent le drapeau national ou célèbrent la fête nationale sont moqués comme faisant partie de la « base loyale » ou comme des « ressources jetables ». Ceux qui commémorent la victoire de la guerre de résistance contre le Japon dans l’espace public ou sur les réseaux sociaux sont accusés d’être « endoctrinés » ou produits d’une « éducation de la haine ». Refusant ce qu’ils perçoivent comme une pression patriotique, certains adoptent même des positions opposées à celles de l’État : soutenir ce que l’État rejette et rejeter ce qu’il soutient est considéré par certains comme un signe de lucidité, de rationalité et de civilisation.

Cette déconstruction complète du patriotisme — consistant à s’opposer systématiquement à tout ce qui est soutenu par l’État et à tourner en dérision les expressions patriotiques — constitue en réalité le miroir du patriotisme aveugle qui s’aligne sans discernement sur la position officielle. Ce phénomène peut être qualifié de sentiment anti-patriotique.

L’analyse des racines de ce sentiment anti-patriotique montre qu’il résulte des nombreux dysfonctionnements de la société chinoise, de l’intensification des contradictions sociales et d’un désarroi psychologique généralisé. Comparée à la dynamique globalement ascendante des années 1980 à 2010, la Chine actuelle fait face à des blocages de développement, à l’impact de la pandémie et à un arrêt des réformes. Les conditions de vie se sont durcies, et les perspectives sont passées de l’espoir à la déception, voire au désespoir.

Par ailleurs, la Chine connaît depuis longtemps un décalage entre les intérêts de l’État et ceux de la population — un « État riche, peuple pauvre » et un « État fort, peuple faible ». Depuis le milieu des années 2010, alors même que l’État s’est renforcé, certains droits civiques ont, dans une certaine mesure, reculé. Les dirigeants et la population, ainsi que les élites institutionnelles et les citoyens ordinaires, sont en partie séparés, voire opposés, plutôt que liés par une relation de confiance. Les contradictions sociales l’emportent sur la coopération, et les conflits sur l’harmonie.

Par ailleurs, le « patriotisme » promu officiellement tend à lier l’amour de la patrie à l’amour du Parti et du gouvernement, exigeant loyauté, obéissance et sacrifice indépendamment de la justesse des politiques. Les citoyens sont tenus d’assumer de nombreuses obligations sans se voir accorder des droits et libertés suffisants. Ce patriotisme officiel inclut souvent des éléments d’anti-occidentalisme et de rejet des valeurs universelles.

Ceux qui critiquent les politiques officielles, prônent l’apprentissage auprès de l’étranger ou expriment simplement des opinions divergentes sont souvent qualifiés de « traîtres », de « vendus », de « laquais du colonialisme » ou encore d’« agents étrangers ». Cela suscite chez de nombreux opposants au pouvoir ou mécontents du statu quo une réaction de rejet et d’aversion envers le patriotisme, les poussant vers l’extrême opposé.

Par ailleurs, le manque de démocratie politique et de liberté d’expression en Chine limite l’expression publique, accentuant la frustration et le découragement. La critique directe du gouvernement et des autorités peut également entraîner des risques.

Dans ce contexte, de nombreuses personnes se tournent vers une forme de sentiment anti-patriotique relativement moins risquée, consistant à s’opposer aux discours officiels, à déconstruire les récits dominants et à « aller à contre-courant » de la ligne officielle sur certaines questions, afin d’exprimer leur mécontentement et leur attitude critique vis-à-vis du système.

Si cela contribue à affaiblir l’autorité officielle et à résister à certaines formes d’endoctrinement, cela nuit également aux sentiments nationaux légitimes et au patriotisme nécessaire, en dévalorisant indistinctement des actions pourtant raisonnables et bénéfiques pour le pays et sa population.

Alors que le ralentissement économique en Chine se poursuit, avec une hausse du chômage, une rigidification sociale croissante et la persistance de nombreux dysfonctionnements, le sentiment anti-patriotique se diffuse plus largement dans le pays, et de plus en plus de personnes rejoignent ceux qui s’opposent au « patriotisme ».

Les réactions de sarcasme ou d’indifférence face à la restitution des biens culturels, à la commémoration de la guerre ou aux activités diplomatiques de la Chine constituent précisément des manifestations de ce sentiment anti-patriotique. De telles expressions sont, dans une certaine mesure, tolérées par les autorités, car elles ne visent pas directement le parti au pouvoir ni le gouvernement et ne menacent donc pas la stabilité du régime.

Le sentiment anti-patriotique / anti-nationaliste, tout comme le patriotisme ou le nationalisme extrêmes, ignore les faits concrets, est guidé par l’émotion, refuse l’analyse au cas par cas et adopte des positions polarisées. Au final, ces deux tendances nuisent aux intérêts nationaux de la Chine. Leur confrontation intense dans l’espace public aggrave les divisions sociales, brouille les critères de jugement entre le vrai et le faux, détériore la qualité du débat public et produit des effets négatifs importants sur la réalité. La montée d’une vague de sentiment anti-patriotique est le résultat des difficultés économiques et de l’intensification des contradictions sociales. La confusion des valeurs et la crise d’identité parmi les Chinois aggravent encore ce phénomène.

La controverse suscitée par cette restitution constitue une nouvelle manifestation de ce sentiment anti-patriotique en Chine. Le retour des biens culturels pillés à leur pays d’origine devrait, en principe, être un fait incontestablement positif, mais en Chine il suscite une forte opposition. Cela appelle à la vigilance et à la réflexion, afin d’analyser ce qui ne fonctionne pas dans le pays.

Comme l’a dit Mencius : « Si le souverain traite ses sujets comme de la poussière, les sujets le considéreront comme un ennemi. » Sun Yat-sen critiquait la fin de la dynastie Qing en affirmant que « l’État ignore le peuple, et le peuple ignore l’État ». Selon le principe moderne d’unité entre droits et devoirs, lorsque les dirigeants ne prennent pas soin du peuple et ne garantissent pas suffisamment ses droits et ses conditions de vie — lorsque les citoyens assument de nombreuses obligations mais disposent de peu de droits, et contribuent beaucoup à l’État tout en en tirant peu de bénéfices — ils développent un ressentiment envers l’État et le gouvernement, rendant le patriotisme difficile.

On dit aussi que « lorsque le sommet est corrompu, la base le devient également ». Lorsque de hauts responsables sont corrompus et que leurs familles émigrent à l’étranger, alors même qu’ils prêchent le « patriotisme » et dénoncent l’admiration pour l’étranger, leurs discours peinent naturellement à convaincre. L’érosion du sentiment patriotique chez les Chinois est précisément le résultat de ces réalités : un État qui néglige sa population, une instrumentalisation du patriotisme et une puissance nationale qui contraste avec la souffrance du peuple.

En résumé, les problèmes internes de la société chinoise, l’insuffisance des droits civiques et des garanties sociales, ainsi que la fracture entre les autorités et la population, affaiblissent gravement l’unité et la cohésion nationales, ce qui nuit au développement du pays et à sa compétitivité internationale.

Pour inverser cette situation, les dirigeants doivent d’abord améliorer les droits civiques et les conditions de vie, accorder de véritables droits démocratiques et garantir un niveau de vie décent. Ce n’est qu’ainsi que les citoyens développeront un sentiment d’appartenance et d’identification à la nation. Une plus grande liberté d’expression et des canaux d’expression normaux sont également nécessaires, afin de permettre aux citoyens d’exprimer leurs émotions et leurs revendications, plutôt que de laisser s’accumuler la frustration sous la contrainte, ce qui engendre conflits et fragmentation interne.

La population doit également comprendre que, si la critique du parti au pouvoir et du gouvernement est légitime, elle ne doit pas conduire à abandonner le patriotisme. La nation demeure une communauté essentielle dans le monde contemporain. Le mécontentement envers les dirigeants ne doit pas se traduire par la déconstruction et l’atteinte aux intérêts nationaux et à la dignité collective, sous peine de nuire également à soi-même. Le patriotisme et la défense des droits individuels légitimes doivent aller dans le même sens, et non s’opposer.

Cependant, dans la Chine actuelle, aucun signe clair de réforme n’est visible, et la population manque d’espoir. Avec le ralentissement économique et la rigidification sociale, les contradictions continuent de s’intensifier, et les conflits entre individus deviennent de plus en plus marqués. Dans ces conditions, à la fois le patriotisme déformé consistant à soutenir tout ce que l’État approuve, et le sentiment anti-patriotique — voire une forme de « haine du pays » — consistant à s’y opposer systématiquement, continueront de se diffuser en Chine, perturbant durablement l’opinion publique et la réalité sociale.

(L’auteur de cet article, Wang Qingmin(王庆民), est un écrivain chinois résidant en Europe et chercheur en politique internationale. Le texte original de cet article est en chinois.)

u/Slow-Property5895 — 2 days ago
▲ 2 r/asian

To Lam as Both Party and State Supreme Leader, Establishing Supreme Personal Authority: Power Centralization in the Communist Party of Vietnam and the Intensification of Authoritarian Politics in Vietnam

On April 7, 2026, To Lam(Tô Lâm), General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam, was elected President of Vietnam through a vote by the National Assembly. To Lam is the first General Secretary since 1986 to concurrently hold the position of State President, breaking the decades-long convention in which the roles of President and General Secretary were held by different individuals.

To Lam comes from the public security and police system and has long served in political security institutions; his style is conservative and hardline. This means that Vietnamese politics is shifting from its earlier relative openness toward conservatism, with the one-party authoritarian rule of the Communist Party of Vietnam and personal dictatorship by its leader being strengthened, and the already limited atmosphere of freedom and elements of intra-party democracy deteriorating.

Since 1945, when the Communist Party of Vietnam began governing parts of Vietnam, and especially after the reunification of Vietnam in 1975, it has consistently implemented a one-party authoritarian system, with no organized opposition or competitors within its territory. A small number of “vase parties” that nominally supported the regime were also pressured by the Party to dissolve on the eve of the upheavals in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. The Communist Party of Vietnam is also a typical Leninist party, with strict organization and discipline, exercising control over political, military, economic, and other spheres, with both government and military operating under the Party’s leadership.

However, compared with other communist parties such as the Chinese Communist Party, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and the Workers’ Party of Korea, which often concentrate power in a single individual, the Communist Party of Vietnam has placed greater emphasis on collective leadership and intra-party democracy. Ho Chi Minh, the Party’s founder and early leader, was relatively open-minded and not enthusiastic about centralizing power; although highly respected, he was willing to respect other comrades within the Party. Ho Chi Minh also did not persecute other revolutionary comrades by leveraging his power. This set a good example for later leadership relations and generational transitions in Vietnam. Although political struggles have often occurred at the top level in Vietnam, they have rarely resulted in life-and-death brutality, allowing a basic level of decorum to be maintained.

After Ho Chi Minh’s death, different leaders of the Communist Party of Vietnam varied in their degree of power concentration depending on their authority and style. Some, such as Le Duan and Nguyen Phu Trong, were more centralized, while others such as Truong Chinh and Nguyen Van Linh were more open-minded. However, most still maintained a certain degree of collective leadership rather than complete personal dictatorship. Internal factions within the Party and regional differences among cadres also objectively formed a degree of mutual constraint.

In terms of state policy, the Communist Party of Vietnam once implemented orthodox socialist models, such as banning market transactions under a planned economy, confiscating capitalist property, and implementing radical land reforms and redistribution policies. However, because Vietnam remained in a prolonged state of war from the 1950s to the 1970s, national energy was mainly focused on dealing with warfare, making it difficult to establish a complete system of planned economy and social control. In order to unite domestic and international fronts and gain support, the Party also often needed to present a relatively open posture.

Under the combined influence of multiple factors, many far-left policies were not fully implemented. The “Stalinist system” seen in the Soviet Union and Mao-era China remained in a “semi-finished” state in Vietnam, with the system not yet fully rigid. At the same time, due to Ho Chi Minh’s relative openness and the need to confront external enemies, large-scale internal struggles and political violence did not occur within the Party. This avoided the brutal political purges and catastrophic economic policies that occurred in the early stages of Soviet and Chinese communist rule, and provided space for later successful reforms.

After Vietnam’s reunification in 1975, the Communist Party of Vietnam once pursued radical socialist policies, including crude land reforms in the South shortly after “liberation,” sending former South Vietnamese military personnel, police, and civil servants to “re-education camps,” and implementing a planned and command economy. Meanwhile, prolonged warfare had already severely devastated Vietnam, and in 1979 the Chinese People’s Liberation Army launched an attack on Vietnam. This led Vietnam into extreme poverty, economic decline, and social collapse. The once fertile land fell into famine, and many Vietnamese fled abroad. At the same time, the Soviet Union declined, the global socialist movement weakened, foreign aid decreased, and the international environment became unfavorable. Vietnam faced severe national difficulties, and the people urgently desired change. Under both internal and external pressures, the Communist Party of Vietnam also faced a crisis of losing power.

It was under such circumstances that in the 1980s the Communist Party of Vietnam decided to carry out reforms, abandoning orthodox socialism and various radical far-left policies, and instead allowing the existence of private ownership and markets, relaxing social control, treating former South Vietnamese regime personnel with tolerance, and attracting foreign investment. Because Vietnam had only recently been unified and had not yet formed a rigid system in either the North or the South, resistance to reform was much smaller than in the Soviet Union, China, and Eastern Europe.

By 1987, reformist leader Nguyen Van Linh was elected General Secretary, marking the beginning of formal and comprehensive “Renovation and Opening” (Doi Moi). Many measures were similar to China’s reform and opening-up, such as prioritizing economic development, no longer rigidly adhering to socialist economic orthodoxy, and adopting a welcoming attitude toward Western and foreign capital. These measures indeed gradually improved Vietnam’s economy, allowing the people to emerge from poverty and despair and move toward prosperity and hope.

However, at the same time, the Communist Party of Vietnam was unwilling to relinquish its authoritarian political control. On the contrary, economic and social reforms and limited political relaxation were precisely aimed at making the Party’s authoritarian rule more stable. This was also similar to China and reflected borrowing from the Chinese system and policies.

In the context of the upheavals in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe in 1989, the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, and the disintegration of the socialist bloc, the Communist Party of Vietnam still insisted on one-party rule, expelled some members advocating liberalization, and imprisoned political dissidents and opposition figures. While opening the economy, the Party firmly maintained political power and retained complete control over coercive institutions such as the military, police, and intelligence agencies.

Compared with the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and China, opposition forces within Vietnam have been much weaker and have been unable to pose a real challenge to the regime. Many anti-Party figures had already gone into exile before reunification, and there has been a lack of organized resistance domestically. In the late 1980s, Vietnam did not experience political upheavals like those in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, nor did it witness large-scale protests similar to China’s 1989 democratic movement. This reflects the strong social control capacity of the Communist Party of Vietnam.

Among these factors, the Vietnamese public security forces—where To Lam originated—have played a crucial role in maintaining regime stability. These forces consist of two parts: political security and public order. The political security branch is primarily responsible for safeguarding the one-party system and the “socialist” system, monitoring and suppressing dissidents, and also performing intelligence, armed suppression, and counter-infiltration functions. All sectors in Vietnam, including party, government, and military systems, are under surveillance by political security institutions, which can bypass normal legal procedures to detain suspects. This resembles the secret police institutions of imperial China, and is also similar to a combination of China’s disciplinary inspection system and state security apparatus. To Lam himself comes from political security work rather than ordinary policing.

For many years in the past, those who served as General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam and in other leading party and government positions rarely came from public security or intelligence backgrounds; instead, they were more often from military, party organizational work, or economic bureaucracy. Figures such as Truong Chinh, Le Duan, and Nguyen Van Linh were “old revolutionaries,” whose earlier lives were mainly devoted to developing party organizations and conducting armed and underground struggles against the South Vietnamese regime as well as American and French forces. Do Muoi and Nong Duc Manh came from economic administration backgrounds, while Nguyen Phu Trong came from the propaganda field. For a long period, whether to project a pragmatic and open image or genuinely to promote economic development and improve people’s livelihoods, reformist figures were highly valued within the Party.

Since the “Renovation and Opening” period, the Communist Party of Vietnam has formed a relatively stable system of collective leadership, assigning the four most important state positions—the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam, the President of Vietnam, the Prime Minister, and the Chairperson of the National Assembly—to four different individuals in order to prevent one-man dictatorship.

In addition, after 2001, the Party abolished the more centralized and smaller Standing Committee of the Politburo (5–6 members), replacing it with the Secretariat of the Central Committee (10–12 members). Among these positions, the General Secretary of the Central Committee remains the most powerful, but the President, Prime Minister, and Chairperson of the National Assembly also share certain responsibilities, each performing their own functions rather than everything being controlled solely by the General Secretary.

Although this arrangement, in which major positions are held by different individuals, is not the same as the separation of powers and checks and balances in democratic countries—since all these officeholders are top-level cadres loyal to the Party—it has nonetheless played a role in preventing power from being concentrated in a single individual and has allowed a limited degree of intra-party democracy to exist.

Vietnam also has internal regional differences, and factional struggles exist within the Party. Leaders from the North, South, and Central regions all occupy positions at the core of power, which helps balance different regions and factions within Vietnam. Such a leadership structure is more representative and more conducive to stable development.

Moreover, when there are multiple high-level leaders capable of independent authority, it becomes easier for reformist figures to secure at least some representation. For example, Nguyen Tan Dung, who served as Prime Minister from 2006 to 2016, and Truong Tan Sang, who served as President from 2011 to 2016, were both relatively open-minded reformists. During the same period, General Secretary Nguyen Phu Trong was more conservative. Most General Secretaries of the Party tend to be relatively conservative; if power is concentrated in the hands of the General Secretary, reformist forces are weakened, making reform in Vietnam more likely to slow down and harder to advance. The coexistence of conservative and reformist factions is more conducive to further reform.

Vietnam’s “Renovation and Opening” has not only achieved considerable economic success, but has also, in many periods, demonstrated a higher level of intra-party democracy than the Chinese Communist Party, leading many observers to place hopes on further democratization and political pluralism. This is largely due to the relatively dispersed nature of power rather than its concentration in one individual. In addition, debate, questioning, and dissent within Vietnam’s National Assembly are significantly more pronounced than in China’s National People’s Congress. Vietnamese legislators can question the Prime Minister and ministers, and votes of confidence in the cabinet often receive a notable number of opposing votes, reflecting greater space for dissent and more effective oversight within the system.

However, in 2026, General Secretary To Lam simultaneously assumed the position of President, clearly breaking the previous norm of intra-party democracy and the dispersion of top state power. This is a clear sign of Vietnam moving toward greater centralization. Nevertheless, Vietnam’s political shift from openness to conservatism did not begin recently; it had already started years earlier.

During the second term of the previous General Secretary Nguyen Phu Trong, both the Party and Vietnam shifted politically toward greater authoritarianism rather than increased democratization. At the 2016 Party Congress, Nguyen Tan Dung, widely regarded as the leading figure of Vietnam’s reform camp, failed to replace the conservative Nguyen Phu Trong, did not even enter the Central Committee, and retired at the end of his term as Prime Minister that same year. Another reformist figure, Truong Tan Sang, also stepped down as President in 2016. Their successors as Prime Minister and President were not reformists and were more inclined to follow Nguyen Phu Trong’s decisions. This signified that in the Party’s internal power struggles and debates over Vietnam’s development path, the reformists were defeated and the conservatives prevailed.

Nguyen Phu Trong, who continued to serve as General Secretary, halted the rapid reforms associated with figures like Nguyen Tan Dung and instead adopted a more cautious development approach. Although Nguyen Phu Trong continued to uphold the national policy of Renovation and Opening and emphasized economic development, he did not advocate aggressive privatization or large-scale introduction of foreign capital. Politically, he explicitly opposed liberalization and political pluralism, emphasized political security, and intensified repression against dissidents. In foreign relations, he strengthened ties with the Chinese Communist Party and maintained close relations with authoritarian leaders such as Vladimir Putin of Russia and Kim Jong-un of North Korea. By the time of his death in 2024, Vietnam’s political climate had become noticeably more conservative and restrained than a decade earlier.

As Nguyen Phu Trong’s successor, To Lam was personally promoted and favored by Nguyen Phu Trong, and their positions are similar. During Nguyen Phu Trong’s tenure, To Lam served as Minister of Public Security, primarily responsible for political security, and several repression campaigns under Nguyen Phu Trong were directed and implemented by To Lam. To Lam also played an important role in the enactment of the “Cybersecurity Law,” the crackdown on NGOs in fields such as environmental protection, and the arrest of prominent dissidents. Nguyen Phu Trong’s sudden death due to illness, followed by To Lam’s smooth succession without significant obstruction, also reflects that a majority within the Party supported a hardline conservative figure to maintain social stability and Party rule in Vietnam.

During nearly two years as General Secretary, To Lam has largely continued Nguyen Phu Trong’s policies, with an overall shift toward even greater conservatism. Vietnamese official discourse and media no longer discuss once-prominent topics of political reform, instead emphasizing economic development and political stability. Previously, there had been considerable dissent and multiple voices within the Party; from the later period of Nguyen Phu Trong to To Lam’s leadership, open opposition has disappeared, with silence replacing debate. The National Assembly’s unanimous vote electing To Lam as President—unlike previous appointments that often included opposing votes—demonstrates the disappearance of dissent and the strengthening of authoritarianism. Among the public, fewer people dare to voice criticism; individuals who mimicked To Lam’s act of eating a luxury steak were arrested and sentenced. This has created a chilling effect, leading to greater silence.

To Lam’s simultaneous role as General Secretary and President is gradually changing certain political norms in Vietnam, shifting from an emphasis on collective leadership and intra-party democracy toward greater concentration of power and authoritarianism. Since the Renovation and Opening period, most Party leaders have come from economic and technical bureaucratic backgrounds, whereas To Lam is the first General Secretary with a background in state security, which will inevitably influence the Party’s priorities and direction. It is also possible that To Lam will place trusted associates from the public security apparatus into more key Party and government positions, increasing the influence of coercive institutions in Vietnam. This is a concerning possibility.

Both Nguyen Phu Trong and To Lam, in their political orientations and policies, have been influenced by the northern great power—China—and the Chinese Communist Party. Around 2015, Xi Jinping consolidated power, gradually eliminating political opponents and establishing himself as the “supreme authority.” Under Xi’s leadership, China has rejected political reform and strengthened authoritarian rule. Nguyen Phu Trong’s shift in Vietnam’s political style and policies occurred in 2016, which is unlikely to be coincidental and shows signs of following or emulating this model. Like Xi, Nguyen Phu Trong used anti-corruption campaigns both to eliminate political rivals and to gain support, achieving centralization of power. To Lam’s further consolidation of authority, and the increasing authoritarian and conservative character of the Party, also align with the decline of intra-party democracy and growing rigidity within the Chinese Communist Party over the past decade. In mid-April 2026, To Lam’s visit to China and meeting with Xi Jinping further reflect mutual alignment and cooperation.

Of course, Vietnam’s centralization of power is not only influenced by China but also aligns with the global trend of democratic regression and the resurgence of authoritarianism. In recent years, democratic systems across Europe, the Americas, Asia, and Africa have faced numerous challenges, with populism and political extremism on the rise, and many democratic and semi-democratic countries experiencing a decline in freedom. Southeast Asia has also seen a resurgence of military involvement in politics and authoritarian governance, including in Indonesia, Cambodia, Thailand, and Myanmar. Against this broader international and regional backdrop, the rise of strongmen from coercive institutions and the strengthening of centralized power in Vietnam is not surprising but rather reflects a broader trend.

With To Lam serving simultaneously as General Secretary and President, he now combines the roles of Party leader and head of state (and upon becoming General Secretary in 2024, he automatically assumed the position of Chairman of the Central Military Commission; after becoming President in 2026, he also became the supreme commander of Vietnam’s armed forces). His power has thus further increased, and there is no longer any significant force within the Party capable of challenging him. Similar to Xi Jinping, To Lam has effectively established himself as the “supreme authority” within both the Party and Vietnam. At present, other core Party members lack the ability to challenge him, and his dominant position is likely to remain stable for years.

However, in concrete terms, To Lam’s power and authority within the Party and Vietnam are still weaker than the monopolistic level of power held by Xi Jinping within the Chinese Communist Party and China. This is because the degree of centralization within the Communist Party of Vietnam is still lower than that of the Chinese Communist Party, and it is difficult for To Lam to establish a full-scale personality cult. Whether To Lam will further consolidate power, how rigid the Party will become, and the future direction of Vietnam will depend on his governance in the coming years and require further observation.

Nevertheless, given To Lam’s background as a senior figure in the public security apparatus, his emphasis on regime stability, and his conservative and hardline political style, it is almost certain that these characteristics will be increasingly reflected in Party policies as his power grows. In the coming years, Vietnam will likely continue to maintain a certain degree of economic openness, as the Party still depends on economic performance and the benefits it brings. However, politically, regression is almost inevitable, and there will be no substantial liberal reform or progress. Many external expectations regarding democratic reform in Vietnam—such as multiparty systems or independent trade unions—have never aligned with Vietnam’s actual conditions or have always had only a slim chance of success; now they are even more illusory. Vietnam’s path toward constitutional democracy, social freedom, and political pluralism remains a distant prospect.

(The author of this article, Wang Qingmin(王庆民), is a Chinese writer based in Europe and a researcher of international politics. The original text was written in Chinese.)

(Regarding Vietnam’s political and economic conditions, the evolution of Party policies, and Vietnam’s foreign relations, the author has written and commented on these topics in multiple other articles, including “Prosperity and Uncertainty Amid Subtle Changes: Vietnam in the Deep Phase of ‘Renovation and Opening,’(《悄然之变下的繁盛与彷徨--“革新开放”深水期的越南》)” “The Pain of Division and the Burden of Reunification in Vietnam(《越南的分治之殇与统一之苦》),” and “Vietnam’s Quiet Rise Amid Multi-Directional Engagement(《四面逢源中悄然崛起的越南》).” These topics have been discussed in greater detail elsewhere and will not be repeated in this article.)

reddit.com
u/Slow-Property5895 — 9 days ago

Harsh Climate, Over a Century of War Trauma, Devastation from Regime Change and Internal Turmoil, Loss of Faith and Rise of Nihilism amid Lies, Pervasive Violence from Family to Society: Social Reasons Behind Russia’s Refusal to End Its Invasion of Ukraine and Achieve Peace

wangqingmin.medium.com
u/Slow-Property5895 — 10 days ago
▲ 3 r/asian

We Are All Strangers: The Joys and Sorrows of an Ordinary Singaporean Family, the Ups and Downs of Life, the Hardships and Marginalization of the Vulnerable, a Cinematic Representation of Social Issues in Singapore, and the Shared Emotions and Conditions of Humanity

On February 19, 2026, I watched the Singaporean film We Are All Strangers(《我们不是陌生人》), which was screened at the 76th Berlin International Film Festival(Berlinale). This film, which tells the joys and sorrows of an ordinary Singaporean family, is sincere in emotion and rich in detail, and it moved me deeply. Therefore, I write this brief review to share my reflections.

The film takes as its main thread the stories of two couples. The middle-aged couple Boon Kiat and Bee Hwa, played by Andi Lim and Yeo Yann Yann, and the young lovers Junyang and Lydia, played by Koh Jia Ler and Regene Lim, both enter into marriage amid twists and turns. Yet before and after marriage, they are troubled by livelihood pressures, and their relationships evolve from simplicity to complexity, unfolding a dramatic tragicomedy of life’s ups and downs.

Family affection and romantic love are the most prominent themes of the film. Boon Kiat and Junyang are a father and son who depend on each other for survival. Like many teenagers, Junyang is rebellious, yet his father is always willing to tolerate and embrace him. When Junyang and his girlfriend “get into trouble” with an unexpected pregnancy and the girl’s family comes to their door, the financially strained Boon Kiat would rather borrow from loan sharks than allow his son’s wedding to be anything less than respectable.

Boon Kiat and Bee Hwa, this middle-aged couple, move from mutual affection to becoming husband and wife, experiencing the awkwardness of youth, the restraint of adulthood, and the mutual understanding and tolerance of an old married pair. From their marriage to Boon Kiat’s death, less than two years pass, yet their bond is deeply devoted, vividly illustrating the sentiment that even a short-lived marriage can carry affection as deep as the sea.

Junyang and Lydia’s romance and marriage, however, move from “dry tinder meeting flame” to gradual dullness, from throwing themselves into love without hesitation to passion fading away while livelihood worries become unavoidable. From carefree youth untouched by sorrow to words held back, even to facing each other in silence, with only tears streaming down. Yet as passion recedes and troubles multiply, the relationship, tested by hardship, becomes deeper and more layered. This is also the transformation many people experience from adolescence to adulthood, from young lovers to husband and wife.

An even more pivotal relationship is the familial bond between Junyang and Bee Hwa. The rebellious Junyang dislikes and looks down upon Bee Hwa, this “stepmother” who came from the background of a hostess, and he often offends her with his words. But after Boon Kiat falls ill and passes away, Bee Hwa manages the household, sells goods with forced smiles, and later takes responsibility for selling fake medicine on Junyang’s behalf and goes to prison. Only then does Junyang painfully realize that he has lost such a good mother. Bee Hwa is usually sharp-tongued and free-spirited, but in major matters she shows real courage and responsibility. Although Junyang is not her biological son, she loves him as her own—not merely out of a sense of elder responsibility, but as a mother’s love for her child, willing to take the blame and be imprisoned for him.

Such stories of family affection and romantic love are indeed not especially novel, yet I was still deeply moved. In particular, Yeo Yann Yann’s superb acting brings Bee Hwa, a mature and resilient woman, vividly to life. The personal experiences and family backgrounds of the characters also resonated strongly with me, as someone with similar experiences and circumstances, and I found myself in tears at the unfolding of the story.

The film also vividly presents many distinctive features and details of Singapore:

Although prosperous and affluent, there are still many who struggle to make a living, selling not only their labor but also their dignity;

The HDB flats (组屋,public housing) that provide shelter for ordinary people;

The hawker centres(食阁) that offer affordable food and are filled with everyday bustle;

The dual nature of neighborly and workplace relationships in public housing estates and hawker centres, where gossip and competition coexist with mutual help and warmth;

The widespread Christian faith and religious wedding ceremonies;

The “A-Level”examinations that place enormous pressure on many Singaporean students and parents;

The demanding, monotonous, and often stifling military service that most Singaporean men are required to undergo;

Those on the margins of society struggling to survive, who may fall into vicious cycles with a single misstep;

Discrimination and distance from the upper class toward ordinary people;

Wealthy Chinese visitors who come to Singapore for enjoyment, spending lavishly while lacking integrity;

The frightening violence of local Ah Long(大耳窿) loan sharks in debt collection.

In the film, Junyang’s family goes through many ups and downs, separations and deaths, wavering repeatedly between hope and despair. Though the plot is somewhat dramatized, overall and in its details it reflects the real lives and hardships of ordinary Singaporeans, including material deprivation, spiritual confusion, and the struggles and dilemmas that arise from them.

There is a scene in which Junyang’s family sits together watching the celebration of Singapore’s 60th anniversary of nationhood on television, with President Tharman greeting the crowds amid flowers and prosperity. Boon Kiat and Bee Hwa sigh at how wealthy Singaporeans appear, yet despite their hard labor, they still cannot afford a home truly their own. Later, when Junyang sees seafront apartments primarily sold to mainland Chinese tycoons, he is astonished—an emotion clearly shaped by the contrast with his own cramped living conditions.

Recently, the term “Cut-off Line/ Kill Line”(斩杀线) has circulated in the media. The experiences of Junyang’s family in the film happen to reflect that, in a certain sense, such a “cut-off line” also exists in Singapore. Of course, the film employs dramatization, deliberately emphasizing tragic elements and blending various negative events. Yet in daily Singaporean news, one often reads reports of the poor falling into high-interest debt, being harassed by gangs, becoming involved in scams and other crimes, ending up in prison, and seeing their families fall apart.

In the film, Junyang’s family, like many people in real life, make one wrong step that leads to wrong steps after wrong steps, mistakes made in haste, a downward slide in life, and the more one struggles, the deeper one sinks into the mire. The saying that misfortune befalls those already suffering is not mere coincidence; in despair, people’s material poverty and psychological pain can damage and disrupt body and mind, making them prone to irrational actions and producing certain inevitable consequences.

Although Singapore has relatively sound housing, healthcare, and educational guarantees, there is still room for improvement in areas such as basic income, elderly support, and childrearing, and the wealth gap is also worrying. Singapore values meritocracy; the visibility and voice of lower- and middle-class citizens are insufficient. The government and social atmosphere encourage personal striving and competitive success, but striving does not necessarily bring success, and competition inevitably produces losers. The protections afforded to vulnerable ordinary people are relatively limited.

Today’s social welfare system can ensure that citizens have food and a place to live, but if Singaporeans want to live more freely, with greater dignity and ease, they need not only extraordinary effort but also family background and luck, rather than something most people can achieve simply by working step by step.

In the film, the family of four are all living with hardship, experiencing life’s turbulence and the warmth and coldness of human relations. Junyang ultimately inherits his father’s occupation, which also means that, after being tempered by hardship, he accepts ordinariness: he changes from someone willing to take risks and seek shortcuts for a better life into someone who sets aside ideals for daily necessities, doing more laborious and humble but steady work. This is also the fate of most ordinary people. Class mobility is not easy, and effort does not necessarily lead to success. Random risks and accidents can easily destroy a person’s prospects. In the tides of history, ordinary people can only drift with the current; faced with harsh realities, they have to lower their heads, accept fate, and compromise.

The ending of the film is neither a complete happy ending nor a tragedy, but rather the ordinary ups and downs inevitable in common lives, the fluctuations within life’s struggles. Junyang and Lydia’s child is also raised in a public housing flat and may grow up to share the same class and similar destiny as the parents—or perhaps not. Everything is possible, which also means it is uncertain and full of variables.

We Are All Strangers allows the world to see the stories of ordinary Singaporeans. The film not only draws international attention but may also help many Singaporeans recognize the “elephant in the room”—the social issues happening around them yet overlooked, the compatriots ignored due to poverty and marginalization, the forgotten corners of human life—and reflect upon them.

When people see the story in the film and understand the predicament of the weak, the suffering of the marginalized, and the helplessness of those struggling to live, they may move from misunderstanding to understanding, from exclusion to tolerance, from indifference to care. Although one cannot expect cinema alone to remedy deep-rooted human flaws and structural social problems, a film can nevertheless prompt reflection and emotional response, preparing the ground for certain positive changes in reality.

Whether public officials or members of civil society, all may thereby gain a fuller understanding of the many facets of society, foster empathy for others, strengthen solidarity among citizens, and even deepen the connection between human hearts and lived realities across all humanity—better addressing the problems that cause suffering and making necessary changes to structural deficiencies. In this way, everyone may live with greater security and dignity, striving for self-improvement while sustaining one another through mutual care and assistance. This is precisely the meaning and aspiration embodied in the film’s Chinese title We Are Not Strangers(我们不是陌生人), which stands in contrast to its English title We Are All Strangers.

Of course, I have also heard some criticisms of the film. For example, that the plot is somewhat conventional, certain developments are predictable, and while it touches on many issues, most are only explored superficially. These problems do exist, and I felt similarly while watching. Yet its flaws do not obscure its merits. The film’s strengths far outweigh its weaknesses. In particular, its emotional scenes are sincere and moving, and its depiction of reality deeply touches the heart, sufficient to cover its shortcomings.

As a Chinese viewer, watching a predominantly Chinese-language film allows me to empathize more deeply than with non-Chinese films, to reflect more, and to be more profoundly moved. I believe many other native Chinese-speaking viewers would feel similarly.

Moreover, the livelihood stories and realities depicted in Singapore are also occurring in China; many of Singapore’s social issues are similar to, or even more severe in China. The images and voices in this Singaporean film objectively also speak on behalf of many Chinese people. For this reason, I have paid particular attention to and offered particular praise for this film.

(The author of this review is Wang Qingmin(王庆民), a Chinese writer based in Europe. The original text was written in Chinese.)

m.imdb.com
u/Slow-Property5895 — 10 days ago
▲ 7 r/asia

To Lam as Both Party and State Supreme Leader, Establishing Supreme Personal Authority: Power Centralization in the Communist Party of Vietnam and the Intensification of Authoritarian Politics in Vietnam

On April 7, 2026, To Lam(Tô Lâm), General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam, was elected President of Vietnam through a vote by the National Assembly. To Lam is the first General Secretary since 1986 to concurrently hold the position of State President, breaking the decades-long convention in which the roles of President and General Secretary were held by different individuals.

To Lam comes from the public security and police system and has long served in political security institutions; his style is conservative and hardline. This means that Vietnamese politics is shifting from its earlier relative openness toward conservatism, with the one-party authoritarian rule of the Communist Party of Vietnam and personal dictatorship by its leader being strengthened, and the already limited atmosphere of freedom and elements of intra-party democracy deteriorating.

Since 1945, when the Communist Party of Vietnam began governing parts of Vietnam, and especially after the reunification of Vietnam in 1975, it has consistently implemented a one-party authoritarian system, with no organized opposition or competitors within its territory. A small number of “vase parties” that nominally supported the regime were also pressured by the Party to dissolve on the eve of the upheavals in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. The Communist Party of Vietnam is also a typical Leninist party, with strict organization and discipline, exercising control over political, military, economic, and other spheres, with both government and military operating under the Party’s leadership.

However, compared with other communist parties such as the Chinese Communist Party, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and the Workers’ Party of Korea, which often concentrate power in a single individual, the Communist Party of Vietnam has placed greater emphasis on collective leadership and intra-party democracy. Ho Chi Minh, the Party’s founder and early leader, was relatively open-minded and not enthusiastic about centralizing power; although highly respected, he was willing to respect other comrades within the Party. Ho Chi Minh also did not persecute other revolutionary comrades by leveraging his power. This set a good example for later leadership relations and generational transitions in Vietnam. Although political struggles have often occurred at the top level in Vietnam, they have rarely resulted in life-and-death brutality, allowing a basic level of decorum to be maintained.

After Ho Chi Minh’s death, different leaders of the Communist Party of Vietnam varied in their degree of power concentration depending on their authority and style. Some, such as Le Duan and Nguyen Phu Trong, were more centralized, while others such as Truong Chinh and Nguyen Van Linh were more open-minded. However, most still maintained a certain degree of collective leadership rather than complete personal dictatorship. Internal factions within the Party and regional differences among cadres also objectively formed a degree of mutual constraint.

In terms of state policy, the Communist Party of Vietnam once implemented orthodox socialist models, such as banning market transactions under a planned economy, confiscating capitalist property, and implementing radical land reforms and redistribution policies. However, because Vietnam remained in a prolonged state of war from the 1950s to the 1970s, national energy was mainly focused on dealing with warfare, making it difficult to establish a complete system of planned economy and social control. In order to unite domestic and international fronts and gain support, the Party also often needed to present a relatively open posture.

Under the combined influence of multiple factors, many far-left policies were not fully implemented. The “Stalinist system” seen in the Soviet Union and Mao-era China remained in a “semi-finished” state in Vietnam, with the system not yet fully rigid. At the same time, due to Ho Chi Minh’s relative openness and the need to confront external enemies, large-scale internal struggles and political violence did not occur within the Party. This avoided the brutal political purges and catastrophic economic policies that occurred in the early stages of Soviet and Chinese communist rule, and provided space for later successful reforms.

After Vietnam’s reunification in 1975, the Communist Party of Vietnam once pursued radical socialist policies, including crude land reforms in the South shortly after “liberation,” sending former South Vietnamese military personnel, police, and civil servants to “re-education camps,” and implementing a planned and command economy. Meanwhile, prolonged warfare had already severely devastated Vietnam, and in 1979 the Chinese People’s Liberation Army launched an attack on Vietnam. This led Vietnam into extreme poverty, economic decline, and social collapse. The once fertile land fell into famine, and many Vietnamese fled abroad. At the same time, the Soviet Union declined, the global socialist movement weakened, foreign aid decreased, and the international environment became unfavorable. Vietnam faced severe national difficulties, and the people urgently desired change. Under both internal and external pressures, the Communist Party of Vietnam also faced a crisis of losing power.

It was under such circumstances that in the 1980s the Communist Party of Vietnam decided to carry out reforms, abandoning orthodox socialism and various radical far-left policies, and instead allowing the existence of private ownership and markets, relaxing social control, treating former South Vietnamese regime personnel with tolerance, and attracting foreign investment. Because Vietnam had only recently been unified and had not yet formed a rigid system in either the North or the South, resistance to reform was much smaller than in the Soviet Union, China, and Eastern Europe.

By 1987, reformist leader Nguyen Van Linh was elected General Secretary, marking the beginning of formal and comprehensive “Renovation and Opening” (Doi Moi). Many measures were similar to China’s reform and opening-up, such as prioritizing economic development, no longer rigidly adhering to socialist economic orthodoxy, and adopting a welcoming attitude toward Western and foreign capital. These measures indeed gradually improved Vietnam’s economy, allowing the people to emerge from poverty and despair and move toward prosperity and hope.

However, at the same time, the Communist Party of Vietnam was unwilling to relinquish its authoritarian political control. On the contrary, economic and social reforms and limited political relaxation were precisely aimed at making the Party’s authoritarian rule more stable. This was also similar to China and reflected borrowing from the Chinese system and policies.

In the context of the upheavals in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe in 1989, the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, and the disintegration of the socialist bloc, the Communist Party of Vietnam still insisted on one-party rule, expelled some members advocating liberalization, and imprisoned political dissidents and opposition figures. While opening the economy, the Party firmly maintained political power and retained complete control over coercive institutions such as the military, police, and intelligence agencies.

Compared with the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and China, opposition forces within Vietnam have been much weaker and have been unable to pose a real challenge to the regime. Many anti-Party figures had already gone into exile before reunification, and there has been a lack of organized resistance domestically. In the late 1980s, Vietnam did not experience political upheavals like those in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, nor did it witness large-scale protests similar to China’s 1989 democratic movement. This reflects the strong social control capacity of the Communist Party of Vietnam.

Among these factors, the Vietnamese public security forces—where To Lam originated—have played a crucial role in maintaining regime stability. These forces consist of two parts: political security and public order. The political security branch is primarily responsible for safeguarding the one-party system and the “socialist” system, monitoring and suppressing dissidents, and also performing intelligence, armed suppression, and counter-infiltration functions. All sectors in Vietnam, including party, government, and military systems, are under surveillance by political security institutions, which can bypass normal legal procedures to detain suspects. This resembles the secret police institutions of imperial China, and is also similar to a combination of China’s disciplinary inspection system and state security apparatus. To Lam himself comes from political security work rather than ordinary policing.

For many years in the past, those who served as General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam and in other leading party and government positions rarely came from public security or intelligence backgrounds; instead, they were more often from military, party organizational work, or economic bureaucracy. Figures such as Truong Chinh, Le Duan, and Nguyen Van Linh were “old revolutionaries,” whose earlier lives were mainly devoted to developing party organizations and conducting armed and underground struggles against the South Vietnamese regime as well as American and French forces. Do Muoi and Nong Duc Manh came from economic administration backgrounds, while Nguyen Phu Trong came from the propaganda field. For a long period, whether to project a pragmatic and open image or genuinely to promote economic development and improve people’s livelihoods, reformist figures were highly valued within the Party.

Since the “Renovation and Opening” period, the Communist Party of Vietnam has formed a relatively stable system of collective leadership, assigning the four most important state positions—the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam, the President of Vietnam, the Prime Minister, and the Chairperson of the National Assembly—to four different individuals in order to prevent one-man dictatorship.

In addition, after 2001, the Party abolished the more centralized and smaller Standing Committee of the Politburo (5–6 members), replacing it with the Secretariat of the Central Committee (10–12 members). Among these positions, the General Secretary of the Central Committee remains the most powerful, but the President, Prime Minister, and Chairperson of the National Assembly also share certain responsibilities, each performing their own functions rather than everything being controlled solely by the General Secretary.

Although this arrangement, in which major positions are held by different individuals, is not the same as the separation of powers and checks and balances in democratic countries—since all these officeholders are top-level cadres loyal to the Party—it has nonetheless played a role in preventing power from being concentrated in a single individual and has allowed a limited degree of intra-party democracy to exist.

Vietnam also has internal regional differences, and factional struggles exist within the Party. Leaders from the North, South, and Central regions all occupy positions at the core of power, which helps balance different regions and factions within Vietnam. Such a leadership structure is more representative and more conducive to stable development.

Moreover, when there are multiple high-level leaders capable of independent authority, it becomes easier for reformist figures to secure at least some representation. For example, Nguyen Tan Dung, who served as Prime Minister from 2006 to 2016, and Truong Tan Sang, who served as President from 2011 to 2016, were both relatively open-minded reformists. During the same period, General Secretary Nguyen Phu Trong was more conservative. Most General Secretaries of the Party tend to be relatively conservative; if power is concentrated in the hands of the General Secretary, reformist forces are weakened, making reform in Vietnam more likely to slow down and harder to advance. The coexistence of conservative and reformist factions is more conducive to further reform.

Vietnam’s “Renovation and Opening” has not only achieved considerable economic success, but has also, in many periods, demonstrated a higher level of intra-party democracy than the Chinese Communist Party, leading many observers to place hopes on further democratization and political pluralism. This is largely due to the relatively dispersed nature of power rather than its concentration in one individual. In addition, debate, questioning, and dissent within Vietnam’s National Assembly are significantly more pronounced than in China’s National People’s Congress. Vietnamese legislators can question the Prime Minister and ministers, and votes of confidence in the cabinet often receive a notable number of opposing votes, reflecting greater space for dissent and more effective oversight within the system.

However, in 2026, General Secretary To Lam simultaneously assumed the position of President, clearly breaking the previous norm of intra-party democracy and the dispersion of top state power. This is a clear sign of Vietnam moving toward greater centralization. Nevertheless, Vietnam’s political shift from openness to conservatism did not begin recently; it had already started years earlier.

During the second term of the previous General Secretary Nguyen Phu Trong, both the Party and Vietnam shifted politically toward greater authoritarianism rather than increased democratization. At the 2016 Party Congress, Nguyen Tan Dung, widely regarded as the leading figure of Vietnam’s reform camp, failed to replace the conservative Nguyen Phu Trong, did not even enter the Central Committee, and retired at the end of his term as Prime Minister that same year. Another reformist figure, Truong Tan Sang, also stepped down as President in 2016. Their successors as Prime Minister and President were not reformists and were more inclined to follow Nguyen Phu Trong’s decisions. This signified that in the Party’s internal power struggles and debates over Vietnam’s development path, the reformists were defeated and the conservatives prevailed.

Nguyen Phu Trong, who continued to serve as General Secretary, halted the rapid reforms associated with figures like Nguyen Tan Dung and instead adopted a more cautious development approach. Although Nguyen Phu Trong continued to uphold the national policy of Renovation and Opening and emphasized economic development, he did not advocate aggressive privatization or large-scale introduction of foreign capital. Politically, he explicitly opposed liberalization and political pluralism, emphasized political security, and intensified repression against dissidents. In foreign relations, he strengthened ties with the Chinese Communist Party and maintained close relations with authoritarian leaders such as Vladimir Putin of Russia and Kim Jong-un of North Korea. By the time of his death in 2024, Vietnam’s political climate had become noticeably more conservative and restrained than a decade earlier.

As Nguyen Phu Trong’s successor, To Lam was personally promoted and favored by Nguyen Phu Trong, and their positions are similar. During Nguyen Phu Trong’s tenure, To Lam served as Minister of Public Security, primarily responsible for political security, and several repression campaigns under Nguyen Phu Trong were directed and implemented by To Lam. To Lam also played an important role in the enactment of the “Cybersecurity Law,” the crackdown on NGOs in fields such as environmental protection, and the arrest of prominent dissidents. Nguyen Phu Trong’s sudden death due to illness, followed by To Lam’s smooth succession without significant obstruction, also reflects that a majority within the Party supported a hardline conservative figure to maintain social stability and Party rule in Vietnam.

During nearly two years as General Secretary, To Lam has largely continued Nguyen Phu Trong’s policies, with an overall shift toward even greater conservatism. Vietnamese official discourse and media no longer discuss once-prominent topics of political reform, instead emphasizing economic development and political stability. Previously, there had been considerable dissent and multiple voices within the Party; from the later period of Nguyen Phu Trong to To Lam’s leadership, open opposition has disappeared, with silence replacing debate. The National Assembly’s unanimous vote electing To Lam as President—unlike previous appointments that often included opposing votes—demonstrates the disappearance of dissent and the strengthening of authoritarianism. Among the public, fewer people dare to voice criticism; individuals who mimicked To Lam’s act of eating a luxury steak were arrested and sentenced. This has created a chilling effect, leading to greater silence.

To Lam’s simultaneous role as General Secretary and President is gradually changing certain political norms in Vietnam, shifting from an emphasis on collective leadership and intra-party democracy toward greater concentration of power and authoritarianism. Since the Renovation and Opening period, most Party leaders have come from economic and technical bureaucratic backgrounds, whereas To Lam is the first General Secretary with a background in state security, which will inevitably influence the Party’s priorities and direction. It is also possible that To Lam will place trusted associates from the public security apparatus into more key Party and government positions, increasing the influence of coercive institutions in Vietnam. This is a concerning possibility.

Both Nguyen Phu Trong and To Lam, in their political orientations and policies, have been influenced by the northern great power—China—and the Chinese Communist Party. Around 2015, Xi Jinping consolidated power, gradually eliminating political opponents and establishing himself as the “supreme authority.” Under Xi’s leadership, China has rejected political reform and strengthened authoritarian rule. Nguyen Phu Trong’s shift in Vietnam’s political style and policies occurred in 2016, which is unlikely to be coincidental and shows signs of following or emulating this model. Like Xi, Nguyen Phu Trong used anti-corruption campaigns both to eliminate political rivals and to gain support, achieving centralization of power. To Lam’s further consolidation of authority, and the increasing authoritarian and conservative character of the Party, also align with the decline of intra-party democracy and growing rigidity within the Chinese Communist Party over the past decade. In mid-April 2026, To Lam’s visit to China and meeting with Xi Jinping further reflect mutual alignment and cooperation.

Of course, Vietnam’s centralization of power is not only influenced by China but also aligns with the global trend of democratic regression and the resurgence of authoritarianism. In recent years, democratic systems across Europe, the Americas, Asia, and Africa have faced numerous challenges, with populism and political extremism on the rise, and many democratic and semi-democratic countries experiencing a decline in freedom. Southeast Asia has also seen a resurgence of military involvement in politics and authoritarian governance, including in Indonesia, Cambodia, Thailand, and Myanmar. Against this broader international and regional backdrop, the rise of strongmen from coercive institutions and the strengthening of centralized power in Vietnam is not surprising but rather reflects a broader trend.

With To Lam serving simultaneously as General Secretary and President, he now combines the roles of Party leader and head of state (and upon becoming General Secretary in 2024, he automatically assumed the position of Chairman of the Central Military Commission; after becoming President in 2026, he also became the supreme commander of Vietnam’s armed forces). His power has thus further increased, and there is no longer any significant force within the Party capable of challenging him. Similar to Xi Jinping, To Lam has effectively established himself as the “supreme authority” within both the Party and Vietnam. At present, other core Party members lack the ability to challenge him, and his dominant position is likely to remain stable for years.

However, in concrete terms, To Lam’s power and authority within the Party and Vietnam are still weaker than the monopolistic level of power held by Xi Jinping within the Chinese Communist Party and China. This is because the degree of centralization within the Communist Party of Vietnam is still lower than that of the Chinese Communist Party, and it is difficult for To Lam to establish a full-scale personality cult. Whether To Lam will further consolidate power, how rigid the Party will become, and the future direction of Vietnam will depend on his governance in the coming years and require further observation.

Nevertheless, given To Lam’s background as a senior figure in the public security apparatus, his emphasis on regime stability, and his conservative and hardline political style, it is almost certain that these characteristics will be increasingly reflected in Party policies as his power grows. In the coming years, Vietnam will likely continue to maintain a certain degree of economic openness, as the Party still depends on economic performance and the benefits it brings. However, politically, regression is almost inevitable, and there will be no substantial liberal reform or progress. Many external expectations regarding democratic reform in Vietnam—such as multiparty systems or independent trade unions—have never aligned with Vietnam’s actual conditions or have always had only a slim chance of success; now they are even more illusory. Vietnam’s path toward constitutional democracy, social freedom, and political pluralism remains a distant prospect.

(The author of this article, Wang Qingmin(王庆民), is a Chinese writer based in Europe and a researcher of international politics. The original text was written in Chinese.)

(Regarding Vietnam’s political and economic conditions, the evolution of Party policies, and Vietnam’s foreign relations, the author has written and commented on these topics in multiple other articles, including “Prosperity and Uncertainty Amid Subtle Changes: Vietnam in the Deep Phase of ‘Renovation and Opening,’(《悄然之变下的繁盛与彷徨--“革新开放”深水期的越南》)” “The Pain of Division and the Burden of Reunification in Vietnam(《越南的分治之殇与统一之苦》),” and “Vietnam’s Quiet Rise Amid Multi-Directional Engagement(《四面逢源中悄然崛起的越南》).” These topics have been discussed in greater detail elsewhere and will not be repeated in this article.)

u/Slow-Property5895 — 10 days ago

2026 Hungary General Election: Ideological Struggle and International Power Plays in the Heart of Central Europe

On April 12, Hungary will hold its once-every-four-years National Assembly election. Hungary is a parliamentary system in which the legislature is the center of power, and the prime minister is chosen by the parliamentary majority. Therefore, Hungary’s parliamentary election is also its “general election,” determining the distribution of political power in the country.

According to opinion polls, the rising political newcomer Péter Magyar leads in support with his “Tisza Party (Party of Respect and Freedom),” followed closely by Viktor Orbán’s Fidesz, which has been in power for nearly 16 years. Other parties lag significantly behind. Whether Magyar will replace Orbán as Hungary’s leader remains uncertain due to the tight race.

This election is not only highly significant domestically, but has also attracted international attention. Several countries and forces are attempting to influence the outcome and promote their preferred candidates.

On April 7, U.S. Vice President J.D. Vance arrived in Hungary, openly campaigned for Orbán, and accused the European Union of interfering in Hungary’s election. The EU has indeed long been at odds with the Orbán government, is reluctant to see his re-election, and tends to favor the pro-European opposition.

In addition, many countries and political groups in Europe and around the world have expressed concern over Hungary’s election and stated their respective positions. Right-wing populist governments and parties generally support Orbán, while establishment forces tend to favor Magyar and other opposition parties.

Why does Hungary, as a small country, attract such attention and even international intervention in its election? This is not only due to Hungary’s strategic position in the heart of Europe, but also because of its unique political environment and the symbolic significance of its political changes.

Among the 27 EU member states, Hungary’s political situation and its domestic and foreign policies are quite distinctive. Since coming to power in 2010, the Fidesz government led by Orbán has pursued policies based on religious conservatism, radical nationalism, and populism. It openly opposes diversity, secularism, feminism, LGBTQ rights, environmental protection, and other progressive or establishment agendas, and resists the European integration process advocated by the EU.

By contrast, most other EU countries are governed by establishment forces, with positions opposite to Orbán’s. Even the few populist leaders who have come to power, such as Italian Prime Minister Giorgia Meloni, have remained relatively low-profile and continue to support most EU policies. Orbán, by contrast, has been notably “bold” and confrontational in opposing EU policies, prioritizing resistance to mainstream EU forces and even disrupting EU operations while remaining within the Union.

In foreign policy, the Orbán government maintains close ties with Russia and China, opposes aid to Ukraine and Ukraine’s accession to the EU. Toward the United States, it opposes Joe Biden and the Democratic Party establishment, while aligning more closely with Donald Trump and right-wing populist forces. Hungary has also used the EU’s unanimity principle in passing legislation to veto several EU decisions single-handedly, such as blocking sanctions against Russia and aid to Ukraine in February this year. Since the outbreak of the Russia–Ukraine war, Orbán has also met and communicated with Vladimir Putin multiple times.

This has enabled Hungary to gain regional and international influence exceeding its national strength, and has made it a “beacon” and model in the eyes of conservative populist forces worldwide. Right-wing populist forces in other European countries such as the United Kingdom, France, and Germany, which currently lack sufficient votes and seats to govern, admire and support the Orbán government. Figures such as Argentina’s Javier Milei and Israel’s Benjamin Netanyahu have also explicitly supported Orbán.

Meanwhile, Donald Trump and the “MAGA” populist movement in the United States are even more ideologically aligned with the Orbán government, and both sides maintained close cooperation during Trump’s two terms. Before and after coming to power, Trump and American populists have repeatedly drawn lessons from Orbán’s Hungary. Both sides also view the European and American establishment, as well as the EU, as adversaries.

This is precisely why Vance flew to Budapest ahead of Hungary’s election to campaign for Orbán. At a joint press conference with Orbán, Vance stated that the United States and Hungary jointly “defend Western civilization,” referring to the defense of white identity and Christian values. This stands in opposition to the multicultural and inclusive stance toward non-white and non-Christian groups advocated by Western establishment forces.

At the same time, Orbán is also disliked by establishment forces and mainstream EU factions (center-left and center-right) across various countries. Although the EU has not directly interfered in Hungary’s election, it has indeed exerted pressure through economic and legal means, such as freezing EU funds to Hungary, in an attempt to push out Orbán—who frequently opposes the EU—and replace him with a pro-EU establishment government.

Therefore, this Hungarian election has drawn widespread attention across Europe and internationally. The political magazine Politico Europe has even described it as the most important election in Europe in 2026. Various countries and political forces are trying by all means to influence Hungary’s election, seeking to bring to power those aligned with their own values and interests, and to marginalize opposing forces. This is not only about competing for influence over Hungarian politics, but also a key part of the global ideological struggle and the broader contest between establishment and populist forces.

For the global right-wing populist camp, preserving the Orbán government as a “conservative beacon” standing amid establishment-dominated Europe is of great significance; for establishment and progressive forces, removing Orbán—seen as a “thorn in the side” and a “traitor” within the EU—has long been anticipated. The outcome of this election carries both important symbolic meaning and practical value, and both sides are determined to win.

So who will ultimately prevail in this election? Can the newcomer Magyar and his party defeat Orbán and Fidesz?

Although current polls show Magyar and the Tisza Party in the lead, the advantage is not significant. In the final stage of voting, the deeply rooted Orbán and Fidesz clearly possess stronger mobilization capabilities. With the advantage of long-term governance, they are better able to mobilize supporters to vote. In particular, Orbán enjoys higher support in rural areas, and the single-member district system also favors parties with greater resources and stronger organization.

Although Magyar has high popularity, his grassroots support is not solid. Even if he has advantages in places such as the capital Budapest, the electoral system makes it difficult to convert support into sufficient seats. Orbán’s supporters are attempting to undermine Magyar by exposing various real or fabricated scandals, and the situation may still fluctuate in the final days.

Even if Magyar and the Tisza Party win, Orbán may refuse to recognize the election results and may use the ruling party’s power and the judicial system to obstruct political turnover. Based on Orbán’s political conduct and the behavior of right-wing populist figures in many countries, the possibility of refusing to concede defeat and transfer power is high. If this occurs, Hungary may fall into political instability or even political violence.

In addition, if the Tisza Party and Fidesz receive similar numbers of votes and seats, and neither achieves a majority, it will be crucial which side other parties choose and with whom they form a coalition government. At present, most opposition parties in Hungary oppose Orbán, which is relatively favorable to Magyar. However, this does not mean they will necessarily side with him; the outcome will depend on political bargaining among all parties.

Magyar himself and the Tisza Party hold a conservative liberal position. On some economic and social issues, they are similar to Orbán, but are relatively more pro-European and less populist. This helps attract moderate center-right, anti-populist, and relatively moderate voters, and may also draw some of Orbán’s supporters. However, it may also lead progressive left-wing voters to abstain or shift their support to left-wing parties such as the Hungarian Socialist Party, thereby allowing Orbán to benefit.

In conclusion, although Hungary’s 2026 election campaign has entered its final stage, uncertainty remains and the outcome is not yet determined. Precisely because the result is uncertain, various forces have become involved, openly and covertly supporting their preferred candidates. As the election approaches, all sides are making final efforts to win votes.

However, since Magyar himself comes from Fidesz, and his current political positions differ only to a limited extent from Orbán’s, even if he is elected, Hungary’s domestic and foreign policies would not change dramatically.

He would, however, improve relations with the European Union. The fact that both Magyar and Orbán—two conservatives—enjoy the support of the majority of Hungarians also reflects the predominantly conservative political orientation of Hungarian society. Hungarians who advocate progressivism and an open society are concentrated in the capital, Budapest, while the country’s many small towns and rural areas remain strongholds of conservatism.

Regardless of the outcome of Hungary’s election, the intensifying conflicts in recent years—based on ideological differences such as left vs. right, establishment vs. populist, and progressive vs. conservative—will continue. Political competition among countries and political forces, both domestically and internationally, will persist. An increasingly fragmented world is becoming connected in another way—not as a harmonious “global village,” but as a transnational battleground defined by factional confrontation.

(The author of this article, Wang Qingmin(王庆民), is a Europe-based Chinese writer and researcher of international politics. The original text of this article was written in Chinese and has been translated into Hungarian and English using GPT.

The author has also written a long-form study titled “Orbán’s Hungary: A Conservative Populist State under ‘Electoral Autocracy’ and a Microcosm of Euroskeptic and Anti-EU Currents across Europe(《欧尔班的匈牙利:“民选独裁”治下的保守民粹之国和欧洲各国疑欧反欧逆流的缩影》),” which was originally written in Chinese.)

wangqingmin.medium.com
u/Slow-Property5895 — 11 days ago