Metaphor: Saying something IS something else (not using "like" or "as").
Why a writer uses it: To reveal the true nature of something — to get beneath the surface of a character, place or idea by comparing it to something else and stating it as fact.
Focus on the connotations (associations) of what something or someone is being compared to – what do these associations imply?
Simile: Comparing something using "like" or "as".
Why a writer uses it: To create a precise, vivid comparison that captures something a plain description cannot.
Focus on the connotations (associations) of what something or someone is being compared to – what do these associations imply? It is different to a metaphor because it is not being stated as fact, but it is suggesting a similarity – not as strong as a comparison but still a comparison.
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Personification: Giving human qualities to a non-human thing.
Why a writer uses it: To make a setting feel threatening, alive, sympathetic or hostile — as if the world is reacting to the character. It is given the non-human subject a personality.
Focus on the personality the personification implies, and what sort of tone is that (hostile, happy etc.) – how does this personality affect the setting/character? Zoom in on the specific words and connotations to explain how it implies this personality.
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Pathetic Fallacy: Using the weather or natural world to reflect a character's emotional state.
Why a writer uses it: To externalise internal emotion — the world mirrors what the character feels, making emotion feel universal and inevitable.
Focus on the feelings the weather gives – picture the colours, what it would feel like to be in that weather and then suggest what kind of mood that could imply about the character, setting or plot moment.
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Sibilance: Repeated "s" sounds close together.
Why a writer uses it: To create softness, unease or menace depending on context. The hissing sound can feel serpentine, secretive or soothing. The writer is drawing emphasis to this.
Focus on what the tone of the source is in general to decide what the writer is drawing emphasis to. If it is a menacing or scary atmosphere vs soothing.
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Alliteration: Repeated consonant sounds at the start of nearby words.
Why a writer uses it: To link ideas together rhythmically. The repeated sound hammers the connection into the reader's mind.
Focus on the connotations and associations of what is repeating – how does this link to the writer’s message and the moment for the character/setting/plot or purpose of the text.
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Repetition: Repeating a word, phrase or grammatical structure for emphasis
Anaphora: Anaphora is repetition at the start of clauses.
Why a writer uses it: To insist. The rhythm of repetition feels inevitable — like a drumbeat. It forces the reader to feel the weight of the idea. The repetition indicates a key theme or sentiment that the writer wants to emphasise.
Focus on the connotations and associations of what is repeating – how does this link to the writer’s message and the moment for the character/setting/plot or purpose of the text.
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Hyperbole: Deliberate exaggeration.
Why a writer uses it: To convey extreme emotion — the exaggeration expresses what ordinary language cannot capture.
Focus on what the writer is trying to exaggerate, then suggest why.
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Juxtaposition: Placing two contrasting ideas, images or characters next to each other.
Why a writer uses it: To highlight the contrast — the difference between the two things becomes the point. It normally suggests a sense of confusion. The difference between the two words and deciding which of the two words is more relevant.
Focus on what the two words imply (associations/connotations) and what may be confusing in that moment – what does the character or writer have struggle choosing between?
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Semantic Field: A cluster of words from the same topic or area of meaning.
Why a writer uses it: To build a sustained atmosphere or impression. The accumulated effect is more powerful than a single word.
Focus on the theme of the group of words first and the explain the individual connotations of one or two key words in that theme-group. The connotations demonstrate the emotions that the writer is trying to convey. What do we learn about the moment/setting/character from these connotations?
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Listing: an extended list.
Rule of three: : A list of three items
Why a writer uses it: Three-part lists feel complete and emphasise a key point. Extended lists create accumulation and overwhelm.
If it is a three part list: what emotion or the theme is the writer focusing on- what does that tell you about the character/setting or moment? If it is a longer list – why would the writer want the moment to seem ‘bigger’ – what does that tell you about the character/setting/moment?
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Direct Address: Speaking directly to "you" — the reader.
Why a writer uses it: To pull the reader in — to make them feel personally implicated or spoken to.
Focus on what moment the writer wants to draw you into, and what it suggests about the narrator’s ‘connection’ to that moment: are we meant to hope for the character/outcome, are we meant to scorn it or find it humorous? What does that imply about the importance of the moment for the plot?
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Irony/sarcasm: Saying the opposite of what you mean, or using language that contrasts with the reality being described.
Why a writer uses it: To create distance, humour or biting critique. Irony implies the reader is clever enough to spot the gap between what is said and what is meant.
Focus on why the writer wouldn’t directly criticise the moment – are they fed up of complaining at this point? Or is it something else? What does that imply about the moment?
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Rhetorical Question: A question asked for effect — no answer expected.
Why a writer uses it: To challenge the reader, express frustration, or force reflection.
In persuasive writing, it is often use to emphasise an assumption that you will agree with them (which is a persuasion tactic). In other moments, it may emphasise frustration, or a moment the writer doesn’t want to compromise. What does it tell you about the writer’s perspective (paper 2), or the character’s perspective (paper 1)?
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Euphemism: A mild or indirect expression used in place of something harsh.
Why a writer uses it: To soften, deflect or — in critical writing — to expose the gap between comfortable language and brutal reality.
Focus on what the writer is not directly saying, why can’t they directly say it? What does that imply about the writer’s perspective of the moment (paper 2), or the character’s perspective of the moment (paper 1)?
4b. How to Make Inferences — Step by Step
An inference is a conclusion you reach from evidence. It's what the text IMPLIES, not what it STATES. Here's how to do it:
Step 1 — Read the detail: "She kept her coat on indoors."
Step 2 — Ask what it suggests: Is she cold? Is she about to leave? Does she feel unwelcome? Is it a habit that reveals something about her?
Step 3 — Use context clues: What else is happening in the text? What does the rest of the passage tell us about her?
Step 4 — Write your inference: "The detail that she kept her coat on implies she does not consider this place to be home — her readiness to leave at any moment suggests she feels like an outsider, unable to fully inhabit the space." What are you learning about the character/moment/setting etc.
Useful inference starters:
This implies...
This suggests...
This conveys...
The reader might infer that...
This could be interpreted as...
This implies [idea], suggesting to the reader that [deeper meaning]...
Instead of "shows"...
Try these instead
Shows / tells:
implies, conveys, asserts, reveals, insinuates, exposes, illuminates, evokes, communicates, suggests, portrays, emphasises, foregrounds, juxtaposes, subverts, challenges, reinforces, undermines, critiques, interrogates
Makes the reader feel:
compels the reader to consider, invites reflection, forces the reader to confront, prompts the reader to question, implicates the reader in, positions the reader to
Uses:
employs, deploys, harnesses, exploits, invokes, crafts, constructs, manipulates
With all of these words, check out what they mean and nuances and tenses. They’re important and you need to understand before you use them.
Instead of "bad/sad/angry"...
Try these instead
Sad / unhappy
melancholic, despondent, desolate, mournful, elegiac, forlorn, bereft, disconsolate
Angry / outraged
indignant, incensed, vitriolic, scathing, contemptuous, caustic, sardonic, acerbic
Happy / hopeful
euphoric, sanguine, buoyant, effervescent, tentatively optimistic, cautiously hopeful
Scary / threatening
menacing, sinister, ominous, foreboding, insidious, malevolent, unnerving
Calm / peaceful
serene, tranquil, placid, contemplative, meditative, languid
Confused / uncertain
disoriented, ambivalent, equivocal, uncertain, tentative, vacillating
Strong / confident
assertive, resolute, uncompromising, authoritative, defiant, unwavering
Weak / helpless
impotent, ineffectual, vulnerable, compliant, resigned, acquiescent
Good
Marvellous, exceptional, prime, choice, noteworthy, stupendous, remarkable, distinguished, exemplary, exquisite, magnificent, outstanding, superlative, transcendent
Bad (careless)
Lousy, terrible, deficient, abysmal, atrocious, erroneous, mediocre, abominable, botched, bedraggled, slipshod
Important
Consequential, epochal, seminal, paramount, pivotal, momentous
Said
Disputed, deflected, acknowledged, articulated, interjected, deflected, remarked, babbled, effused, hypothesized, pondered, pontificated, chortled, guffawed, beseeched, cajoled, implored, urged, bragged, attested, vowed, declared
To look
Beheld/behold, contemplated, gawked, glowered, scrutinized, surveyed,
Went (walked/run/movement based)
Darted, trudged, beelined, advanced, dashed, scuttled, scampered, hasten, pelt, stampede, cantered, hurtled, stride, stroll, wander, traipse, perambulate, prowl, traverse, prance, strut, saunter
Felt (emotion)
Perceived, discerned, suspected, appreciated, experienced, savoured, digest, assay, relish
6c. Discourse Markers — for linking your arguments
Function
Words / Phrases
Adding a point:
Furthermore, Moreover, In addition, Additionally, Equally, What is more,
Contrasting:
However, In contrast, Conversely, On the other hand, Nevertheless, Despite this, Whereas, Whilst
Comparing:
Similarly, In the same way, Both writers, Likewise, By the same token
Concluding:
Ultimately, In conclusion, It is clear that, Collectively, On balance
Qualifying:
To some extent, While it is true that, It could be argued that, One might suggest